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15THE FORMATION OF THE THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS OF ECONOMIC
SOCIOLOGY
Kravchenko A.I.,
Moscow State University Professor, Doctor of Social Sciences, Faculty of Sociology
ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКИХ ПРЕДПОСЫЛОК ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ СОЦИОЛОГИИ
Кравченко Альберт Иванович доктор социологических наук, профессор, ведущий научный сотрудник кафедры истории и теории социологии социологического факультета МГУ.
ABSTRACT
The article discusses the pre-scientific (ancient) and scientific classical stage of development of economic sociology in Western Europe. Key figures at this time are such prominent scholars as Plato and Aristotle, who developed the earliest concept of division of labor and social stratification, as well as Comte, Durkheim, Saint-Simon, Fourier, Marx, Sombart, Schmoller once claimed.
АННОТАЦИЯ
В статье рассматривается донаучный (античность) и научный классический этап развития экономической социологии в Западной Европе. Ключевыми персонами в это время выступают такие выдающиеся ученые, как Платон и Аристотель, которые разработали самую раннюю концепцию разделения труда и социальной стратификации общества, а также Конт, Дюркгейм, Сен-Симон, Фурье, Маркс, Зомбарт, Шмоллер.
Keywords: economy, society, division of labor, class structure, industrial society, economic sociology.
Ключевые слова: экономика, общество, разделение труда, классовая структура, индустриальное общество, экономическая социология.
The first attempts to analyze the socio-economic problems of the society were made in ancient Greece. In the philosophical teachings of Socrates, Plato, Xenophon and Aristotle sufficiently aware of the progressive role of the division of labor by which society gets social stratification, diversity of professions and occupations, well-organized labor, the system of economic exchange of goods and services. As a result of the division of labor is the specialization of people in the manufacture of certain types of products, improving their quality.
If Plato focuses primarily on macro-social analysis of division of labor (across companies), Xenophon was more interested in the microanalysis of phenomena. Therefore, he examines the division of labor in ergasteria and concerns (for the first time in the history of European thought) the problem of reduction of labour, i.e., of information, of complex labour to simple. Much later, the reduction of labor will be one of the Central issues in the writings of K. Marx, G. Simmel, M. Scheler and A. K. Gasteva.
Plato (427-347 BC) first established a law of "harmonious diversity" of labor. He postulated that: 1) the variety of needs of people corresponds to 2) the variety of abilities to work and 3) a variety of types of labor. Among the three components of social labor exists causality: need — the ability — the work. Needs and abilities constitute what in our time would call "the human factor". This scheme also adhere to modern sociologists, but they add motivation, satisfaction and behavior.
Human necessities for Plato execute the role of incentive impulse for a 1) social development of society, 2) perfections of public labour, 3) origins of economic life. Thus, three theoretical categories of modern economic sociology, formatting her subject sphere, are together bound in the studies of Plato, namely society, labour, economy. There is a man in the center of theoretical triumvirate.
The diversity of human needs generates a variety of types of work and services for their satisfaction, creates a complex, interwoven fabric of social and economic relations. The diversity of needs means, on the one hand, the diversity of human abilities and the heterogeneity of acquired qualifications, on the other -
the disparity of reclaimed types of labor, the inequality of their pay and, as a consequence, the inequality of socio-economic, i.e. class, plight of the people.
Plato believed specialization of labor is a necessary condition for improved product quality and increase its quantity. Both options are economically essential to our society. And the longer someone specializes in their craft, the more success it achieves. Here is Plato's justification for life of the consolidation of the employee for this job. Plato offered the first in the history of theoretical justification of the institution of professional enslavement.
Plato, emphasized the special role of division of labor, created the first in the world theory of stratification according to which every society is divided into three classes: the upper class consists of wise men that govern the state; middle class includes soldiers responsible for the security of the state; the lower class includes artisans and farmers who provide the economic Foundation of society.
Outside the class system were the slaves are non-citizens deprived of all rights and forced to engage in physically the heaviest and unskilled labor.
Although three classes, one property - the public. It guarantees inter-class world and high moral qualities of people. Private property Plato recommended to eliminate.
The higher rung in the social hierarchy, the higher the level of education and qualifications of individuals occupying it. Higher professional qualification and the level of moral development of the individual representatives of the highest class. The management of the state should be allowed highly educated and talented people leading an austere lifestyle. Other classes were allowed to live and enjoy earthly pleasures.
It was the Greeks invented the word, which today has become for our basic - economy, or "oikonomia", the head of the household. Original oikonomia meant the ability of the head of the house, father's name, to lead the house, i.e. to lead the wife, children and household. In Plato "oikonomia" gets more political shade (management policy), and the concept of "koinonia" and does a sociological sense. It designates not only
family labour but also human relationships, i.e. human society.
His version of the theory of social and economic teachings of Aristotle (384 322 BC). The backbone of the social structure of society is middle class. Its representatives — the artisan, the merchant, the sailor, the warrior, the farmer is attentive to any innovation, any improvement, even slightly able to improve productivity and product quality. Above is a rich plutocracy — the idle class, not engaged in socially useful work, engaged in constant intrigue, the machinations and the struggle for power. On the bottom of the social is stripped of ownership of the proletariat, which exists due to state assistance, benefits and deductions.
The state is best controlled if: a) the mass of the poor are not excluded from participation in management; b) selfish interests of the rich are limited; C) the middle class more numerous and stronger than the other two.
A rational model of social mobility based on two principles. The first reads: the middle class needs to be recruited at the expense of the best representatives of the lower class. For them the transition into middle class will be a successful life career. The second prohibits the completion of the middle class due to the worst elements of the highest class because they inter-class transition means a drop. Fall those who are not mired in debauchery and gluttony, squandered it, expelled the representatives of their class.
In its economic doctrine Aristotle identified two types of farming:
Oikonomia — the sphere of subsistence (barter) relationship between the head of the house and household.
Chrematistics — the sphere of commodity-money relations between the seller and the buyer.
The first type of economies meant a budget, or a planned economy. The second type of market, commodity-money economy. Here were engaged in the increment of the money and greed of wealth. Even in Plato "chrematistics" meant a person who knows how to make money, businessman and merchant, the business man generally.
Oikonomia and chrematistics - two parts of one whole. The first was governed by ethical and political considerations, the second was driven by market forces. After 2,500 years, socialist society in the USSR almost completely reproduce a model of Aristotle, with commodity-money relations between enterprises and States, but excluding them from the on-farm relationships.
Aristotle condemns chrematistics as the manifestation of the spirit of capitalism and profit, but welcomed oikonomia as a form of moral and ethical relations between people in the sphere of economy. Private property develops selfish interests. A person controls a lot of aspirations, and the main one is the love of money.
Rationally ordered society must strive not to universal equality, and to equalize life chances. Dangerous for the state of excessive inequality of people. Aristotle extols a society in which the middle class is stronger than all the others. He is looking for a measure in all the extremes and seeks to neutralize. Aristotle can be called the first ideologist of the middle class and a regulated market economy, based on the priority of moral ideals.
Among other things, Aristotle laid the foundations of
ancient ethics of business relations and outlined the principles of regulation of commodity-money relations. One of them is the principle of "proportional reciprocity". Society, taught Aristotle, rests on the fact that everyone is rewarded in proportion to its activities. Therefore, the market and exchange must be built on mutual services.
Thus, Aristotle is not just theoretically summarized the laws of market relations that had long existed in the practice of the ancient Polis, but was let down by them a philosophical Foundation, grounded their correctness, efficiency and rationality for the development of human society.
Aristotelian ethics of business relations, consistently implemented the Greek market, which was focused not only on the interests of rich clients as to the satisfaction of the everyday needs of ordinary, middle class Athenians. Spiritual values and civic virtue was placed by the Greek culture is much higher than ownership of goods and money. Yes, and the money itself needs to produce honest and conscientious work. Only after two thousand years of ancient standards of work ethics, coupled with business practicality, were restored to the rights of Western European Protestantism.
French sociological school
In the New time begins the classic period of development of economic sociology and sociology of labor, which lasts from the end Xyill century to the early twentieth century the Classical period is marked primarily by the development of a global theoretical concepts, built on the comparative analysis of the historical process. These are the socio-philosophical and socio-economic building of Auguste Comte, E. Durkheim, K. Marx, G. Simmel, M. Weber, M. Scheler, and T. Veblen.
A significant contribution to the formation of the theoretical assumptions of economic sociology was made by representatives of the French sociological school. It distinguished two generations. The senior should be attributed the two great utopian socialists — Charles Fourier (1772-1837) and Claude Henri de Saint-Simon (1760— 1825). The younger generation has made two other great Frenchmen, Auguste Comte (17981857) and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917).
Stressing the importance of non-profit employment activities as the most important factor that creates a mutual relationship of people, Saint-Simon gave an exceptional role in the historical movement of society industry. The change of social system he was influenced by the dominant forms of ownership and production. The criterion of progress was the satisfaction of vital human needs. The future of the society was painted as a huge voluntary Association of people, based on the planned organization of production and the compulsory labour of its members. Saint-Simon had introduced into scientific use the term "industrial society", marking the beginning of the theoretical line, which was continued by Comte, Spencer, Durkheim and others down to the wide dissemination of the theory in the United States and Western Europe in the mid-twentieth century (R. Dahrendorf, R. Aron, W. Rostow, D. Bell, A. Touraine).
In Saint-Simon there is no clear class division of the population: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat United in a single class of "players". He has no rejection of religion. He understands that without religious support for labor motivation collapses like a house of cards. However, the place
of traditional Christianity he is the kind of "new Christianity", in which a significant place is occupied by scientific and utopian ideals. Developed Saint-Simon's religious concept of a "new Christianity" was intended to complement the incentives of economic activities moral requirements. But the British was typical of the complete removal of religion.
Charles Fourier, like Saint-Simon, sharply criticized the existing order. Industrial society caused him outright indignation. In France capitalism developed with a huge public costs. His movement was not as smooth and ascending, as in England. Society was shaken by social contradictions and, as its consequence, political upheavals.
The nature of the socio-economic development of society ultimately determined the nature of socio-economic thought. France can not be called a country of classical capitalism. Therefore, there was nothing there to wait and scientific theories that justify capitalism. Fourier and Saint-Simon proposed to reflect on the social cost (increased crime and social differentiation of the population), which had to pay for technological progress.
Criticism of industrial society Fourier, Saint-Simon and Comte called humanistic. They urged the society to a brighter future. Fourier was proposed to destroy the narrow specialization of labor, which destroys people's health, and put forward the principle of work changes. This principle began in the mid-twentieth century in the Soviet sociology of work one of the central tenets of historical materialism. To Fourier also back the idea of turning labour into the prime vital need and destroy the antithesis between mental and physical labor, which after 50 years will be further development in theoretical studies of Marxism, and after another 100 years of practical embodiment in the experiments of the Soviet political figures. In the Soviet sociology of work in 1970-80-ies these principles will be the theoretical core of the concept of developed socialism.
The second generation of the French school belongs the glory of the founders of scientific sociology. Its opening is connected with the name of Auguste Comte, whom historians called the «father of industrial sociology». The right to be called the «father of economic sociology» by M. Weber. Comte has completed the work begun by his teacher Saint-Simon, and it finished the building of the early theories of industrial society (later the theory of industrial society was created in the mid-twentieth century A. Touraine, D. bell, R. Dahrendorf and others). Undoubtedly, such a completion was made possible due to the fact, that before was built the early theory of capitalist society by A. Smith and D. Ricardo.
Comte subdivided the age of the world: a) theological (the antiquity and the early middle ages); b) metaphysical (13001800), C) positive, but even the new era. It is characterized by the transformation of science into a productive force, replacing the military order of the industrial society, the victory of altruism over egoism, of integration over separation. The historical factor of development of society is the division and cooperation of labour, which in the industrial society for the first time develop skill-groups, and expanding the economic diversity of the life forms growing material prosperity of the population.
The disadvantages of capitalism Comte attributed to excessive specialization, the concentration of population in
cities, rising crime, and most importantly, the destruction of the foundations of society — solidarity (consensus) of the people. The division of labor leads to concentration and exploitation, one-sided professionalization, disfiguring the human person. Social feelings are united only by persons of the same profession, forcing them to be hostile to others. Arise corporation, and internal (selfish) morality, which, under certain connivance can destroy the unity of society. To restore solidarity can only state.
E. Durkheim deepened, and in many respects reoriented the positivist methodology of Auguste Comte in his work «On the division of social labor». The subject of sociology is the amount of social facts, by which he understood the religious beliefs and rituals, rules of behavior, population density, frequency of contacts between people, the form of dwellings, language, social division of labor. Their distinctive feature is the independence from the will and consciousness of people. E. Durkheim interpreted the laws of society by analogy with the laws of nature as immutable impact on people, the imperative and necessity.
According to Durkheim, the development of human society takes place two phases: 1) mechanical solidarity (pre-industrial or traditional society); 2) organic solidarity (pre-industrial, and then industrial society). Human history begins with mechanical solidarity — primitive state dominated by the predominance of public ownership, compulsory collectivism, the lack of development of personality, despotic control, uniformity of feelings and beliefs, the domination of customs over formal law, strict regulation, lack of specialization, similarity perform their job functions, the minimum level of division of labor.
Further development of social labor complicates the social structure. Specialization of labor is forcing people to exchange the products of their activities, improve their quality, to specialize in the chosen activity, to compete fairly, thereby developing personal inclinations. Gradually fading the repressive right and collectivism alike, formed a contractual state, civil society and organic solidarity. It deepening division of labour inflicts a fatal blow to this collective consciousness that is without the rest regulates the lives of people, stands above them as the dominant and overwhelming force.
There is the concept of private life. In place of the clan comes first, family, then labor organizations, and economic classes. Its current form — the industrial company. Individuals are grouped not on the grounds of kinship, but by the content labor of economic activities. Their circle of friends — not family, and profession. The place and status of human is not edinagronord, and the function to be executed. At this time an emerging international labour market, goods and services. An emerging international labour market, goods and services.
With population growth intensifies the class struggle. In these circumstances, the division of labor is a significant way to maintain public order, to create social solidarity. The division of labor is a peaceful way to solve the most pressing problems. The economic interpretation of the action as a peaceful method of obtaining material benefits and benefits received further development from max Weber.
Durkheim believed that modern capitalism is far from ideal. But a healthy start — strong economy and organic solidarity, culture and civility of manners of behaviour prevail over the
unhealthy. According to Dürkheim, capitalism itself should get rid of its own disease (immoral forms of division of labor) is competition, exploitation, class conflict, routinization of labor and workforce degradation is due to further development of division of labor.
Economic sociology in Germany
It was based on two theoretical directions - historical and Marxist schools.
Karl Marx (1818-1883) declared a fundamental break with the previous bourgeois science and called for the building of a new communist society. The founder of Marxism did not deny the progressive role of the division of labor. However, unlike Durkheim, he gave the abnormal functions of the division of labour (exploitation, unemployment, poverty) are not random and transient in nature, and due to objective and unavoidable. The division of labor leads to a split of the social structure of society into two antagonistic classes — the exploiters and the exploited. The first exist by the gratuitous appropriation of the surplus product created by the labor of the latter. The slave-owning system and feudalism create something that brings capitalism to its logical end — the unchanging nature of the antagonism between labor and capital, the inevitability of the revolutionary replacement of the old regime and establish a new, socially just society (communism). The dialectical method, inherited by Marxism from Hegel gave special symmetry theoretical constructions of Marx. The doctrine of the alienation of labour, formal and real subordination of labour to capital, both concrete and abstract labor, social transformed forms of employment, the labor theory of value was a cornerstone economic sociology of Karl Marx.
The German historical school or, as it is called, the school of the German social politicians, includes three generations: the first — Adam Müller (1779— 1829) and Friedrich List (17891846), the second — Wilhelm Rother (1817-1894), Bruno Hildebrand (1812-1878) and Karl Knees (1821-1898), the third — Gustav von Schmoller (1838-1917) and Werner Sombart (1863-1941).
The main economic entity in the economic sociology of Gustav von Schmoller are the social classes. They arise in the course of deepening of division of social labor, the formation of professions in both the private occupations and inequality in income distribution. Social hierarchy — a fatal consequence of the division of labour, remains in the future a necessary condition for the existence of society. Full and final equality, first, unattainable, and second, its achievement would mean the suspension of social progress.
Werner Sombart understands sociology as a systematic knowledge of concrete facts of human society, based on empirical and experience. A primary role in the genesis of capitalism Sombart took not economic, but cultural, ethnic and religious factors. The emergence of the bourgeois entrepreneur is the greatest historical event, and capitalism itself — the highest achievement of the human spirit and culture. The development
of capitalist economy contribute not abstract spiritual powers, and quite specific motives and hidden aspirations of the people, such as resourcefulness, desire for enrichment, tireless. The most successful conductors of the capitalist spirit he favor the Jews, which are most typical of frugality, thrift and the pursuit of money. History has prepared them the role of the sales people. The country that took Jews, soon began to prosper economically. It is Germany, Holland, France and England. Countries that deported them, for example, Spain, Portugal, and economically decayed. His book « The Jews and Economic Life» quickly became a bestseller in Germany.
The representatives of this school paid great attention to historical analysis of economic institutions, revealed the national specificities of the country, especially the belated development of capitalism. They believed that the abstract theory of capitalism fit for England, in its development pushed forward, not applicable to semi-feudal Germany. So they fiercely criticized not only by A. Smith and D. Ricardo, but Marx, relating them all to the abstract and theoretical, scholastic tradition.
In their doctrine occupied an important place in the human factor. German thinkers studied economic actions through the prism of lifestyle, motives of their behavior, especially social stratification, status and professional qualification characteristics of large groups of people. So, in the works of A. Muller, F. Liszt and K. Knies economic reality studied from the point of view of human actions, motives, values, cultural traditions and customs. Particular attention in their work, they paid for urbanism and of industrial history, the genesis of the labor movement.
German scientists have found that economic institutions in different countries greatly differ from each other. Therefore, trade, market, or exchange property in different countries develop differently. Germany not applicable economic laws, established by the British or Americans. If in England have proven free trade and mercantilism, it does not mean that they should be spread in Germany. Here is more appropriate for state control of the economy.
Awareness of the leading role of human factor in the development of purely economic processes — market and rent relations, trade, supply and demand, profits — a revolutionary step that created the theoretical background for the emergence of economic sociology as a science.
German economists closely linked theoretical constructs with the practical needs of Germany, social policy of the state. But, most importantly, they reveal the national specificities of the country, its capitalist development. This is the second important moment in their revolutionary coup. They believed that the theory of capitalism is fit for England, in its development pushed forward, not really suitable for backward Germany.
