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ДЕМОГРАФИЯ И СОЦИУМ DEMOGRAPHY AND SOCIETY
УДК 314.7 DOI: 10.37490/S221979310018640-7
A. G. Khokhrin1, V. N. Fedorko2
1Pskov State University, Pskov, Russia 1E-mail: morfius_neo@mail.ru
2Secondary school no. 233, Tashkent, Uzbekistan; Sharaf Rashidov Samarkand State University, Samarkand, Uzbekistan 2E-mail: viktor-f-89@mail.ru
THE DYNAMICS OF THE NUMBER OF RUSSIAN-SPEAKING TITLE POPULATION IN THE STATES OF CENTRAL ASIA IN THE POST-SOVIET PERIOD
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the legal and factual status of the Russian language began to change in the countries of the near abroad, its distribution as a whole, including the degree of its use in various spheres of public life, significantly decreased. This also affected the degree ofRussian language proficiency by representatives of various nationalities, including the titular population of young states. The purpose of the study is to identify factors that affect the dynamics of the Russian-speaking titular population of Central Asian countries in the post-Soviet period. The study is based on a comparative analysis ofpopulation census materials from different years, as well as expert assessments. The factors influencing the relevant socio-cultural processes in the countries of Central Asia at different time intervals of the post-Soviet period are analyzed. In particular, in the context of the states of the region, the factors of legislative, ethno-demographic, social, foreign policy and economic nature that affect the status of the Russian language in society were considered, positive and negative trends in the spread of the Russian language were identified. This, in turn, made it possible to form an assessment of the position of the Russian language among the titular population of the countries of the Central Asian region.
Keywords: Russian language, Central Asia, titular population, labor migration, Russian-speaking education.
For citation: Khokhrin A. G., Fedorko V. N. (2022), The dynamics of the number of Russian-speaking title population in the states of Central Asia in the post-Soviet period, Pskov Journal of Regional Studies, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 3-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.37490/ S221979310018640-7
А. Г. Хохрин1, В. Н. Федорко2
1Псковский государственный университет, г. Псков, Россия 1E-mail: morfius_neo@mail.ru 2Средняя общеобразовательная школа № 233, г. Ташкент, Узбекистан;
Самаркандский государственный университет имени Шарафа Рашидова,
г. Самарканд, Узбекистан 2E-mail: viktor-f-89@mail.ru
ДИНАМИКА ЧИСЛЕННОСТИ ВЛАДЕЮЩЕГО РУССКИМ ЯЗЫКОМ
ТИТУЛЬНОГО НАСЕЛЕНИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВ ЦЕНТРАЛЬНОЙ АЗИИ В ПОСТСОВЕТСКИЙ ПЕРИОД
После распада Советского Союза стало в странах ближнего зарубежья стало изменяться юридическое и фактическое положение русского языка, существенно сокращаться его распространение в целом, включая степень его использования в различных сферах общественной жизни. Это сказалось и на степени владения русским языком представителями различных национальностей, в том числе титульным населением молодых государств. В качестве цели исследования выступает выявление факторов, влияющих на динамику численности владеющего русским языком титульного населения стран Центральной Азии в постсоветский период. Исследование построено на основе сравнительного анализа материалов переписей населения разных лет, а также экспертных оценок. Проанализированы факторы, влияющие на соответствующие социокультурные процессы в странах Центральной Азии на разных временных отрезках постсоветского периода. В частности, в разрезе государств региона были рассмотрены факторы законодательного, этно-демографического, социального, внешнеполитического и экономического характера, влияющие на статус русского языка в социуме, были выделены положительные и негативные тенденции в распространении русского языка. Это, в свою очередь, позволило сформировать оценку позиций русского языка в среде титульного населения стран Центральноазиатского региона.
Ключевые слова: русский язык, Центральная Азия, титульное население, трудовая миграция, русскоязычное образование.
Для цитирования: Khokhrin A. G., Fedorko V. N. The dynamics of the number of Russian-speaking title population in the states of Central Asia in the post-Soviet period // Pskov Journal of Regional Studies. 2022. Vol. 18. No. 2. P. 3-20. DOI: https://doi. org/10.37490/S221979310018640-7
Introduction. After the collapse of the USSR in the post-Soviet space, the legal and factual status of the Russian language, the degree of its distribution, use in various spheres of public life, and the degree of its proficiency by representatives of various nationalities began to change significantly. These socio-cultural processes proceeded and proceed in different ways in various countries and regions of the former USSR, including the republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, in relation to which the term "Central Asia" is often used today.
At the end of the Soviet period and throughout the post-Soviet years, there was an outflow of Russian speakers from the countries of Central Asia. The share of the titular
peoples of the states of the region in the period 1989-2020 increased by more than one and a half times, and the number of Russians, in turn, decreased by more than two times. Against this background, in all countries of the region there is a progressive trend towards a narrowing of the scope and a decrease in the level of the actual spread of the Russian language with an increase in the dominance of national (state) languages in all spheres of public life. The positions of the Russian language as a means of communication, informational discourse, language of instruction and creativity in Central Asia are not changing for the better. Although it is premature to talk about the unpromising position of the Russian language in the public life of the countries of the region, since today the Russian language continues to perform communicative functions in such areas as education, science, culture, military-political cooperation, diplomacy, etc.
After the collapse of the USSR, Russia actually did not pursue an effective policy to maintain the positions of the Russian language and the Russian-speaking population in the states of Central Asia. The difficulties of Russian society and the state in the post-Soviet period overshadowed geopolitical actions to support the Russian-speaking community abroad, primarily in neighboring countries. Subsequently, in the context of deepening Eurasian integration, the Russian language began to act as one of the key factors of Russian influence as a tool of "soft power". In this regard, studies of the state and dynamics of the position of the Russian language in the countries of Central Asia, in particular, the population of the countries of the region who speak Russian, are of great interest.
The purpose of the study is to identify factors that affect the dynamics of the Russian-speaking population of the Central Asian countries in the post-Soviet period.
Information base and research methodology. The study relies, first of all, on the results of population censuses, in particular, the All-Union Population Census of 19891, population censuses of Kazakhstan (2009)2, Kyrgyzstan (2009)3, Tajikistan (2010)4. We also used the information presented in the work of A. L. Arefiev "Russian language at the turn of the 20-21 centuries" [1]. The data of independent research organizations, such as "Eurasian Monitor"5 and "Database "CIS Statistics""6, as well as the international association of teachers of Russian language and literature "MAPRYAL"7 were analyzed. To study the official legal status of the Russian language in the countries of the region, national databases of the laws of the Central Asian states were used. The dynamics of the number
1 All-Union population census of 1989. Distribution of the population of the USSR by nationality and language, the population of the Union republics by the most numerous nationalities and languages. URL: http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_lan_89.php (accessed 20.09.2021).
2 National composition of the population of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Volume 2. Population of the Republic of Kazakhstan by nationality and language proficiency. Results of the 1999 population census in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Statistical collection / Ed. A. Smailova. Almaty: Statistics Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 2000. 272 p.; Population census of the Republic of Kazakhstan in 2009. Brief summary. Statistical collection / Ed. A. A. Smailova. Astana, 2010. 112 p.
3 Population and Housing Census of the Kyrgyz Republic 2009. Book I. Basic socio-demographic characteristics of the population and the number of housing units. Bishkek: National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic, 2009. 54 p.
4 Population and Housing Census of the Republic of Tajikistan 2010. National composition, language skills and citizenship of the population of the Republic of Tajikistan. Volume III. Dushanbe: Agency for Statistics under the President of the Republic of Tajikistan, 2012. 537 p.
5 Eurasian Monitor. URL: https://eurasiamonitor.org// (accessed 11.08.2021).
6 Interstate Statistical Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States. URL: http://www.cisstat. com/ (accessed 11.08.2021).
7 International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature. URL: http://ru.mapryal.org/ (accessed 11.08.2021).
of Russians, indicators of Russian-speaking education in the countries of the region are analyzed on the basis of materials from national statistical8. In addition, the study used statistical information from the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation on labor migration to Russia.
Study of the issue. Quite a lot of modern research is devoted to the study of changes in the national composition of the population in the states of Central Asia in the Soviet period [8] and post-Soviet period [10; 19; 25; 28], including the dynamics of the number of titular peoples [9; 12] and the Russian population [17; 18]. There are works aimed at studying the modern culture of the Russian-speaking population in the countries of the region [14; 16]. A number of works by foreign authors are devoted to the consideration of Russians as an ethnic minority in the states of Central Asia ([24; 26; 27] and others). But especially a lot of research touches on the issues of the current situation in the language space of the Central Asian region [2-5; 11; 13; 21] and the legal status of the Russian language in the states of the region in the post-Soviet period [6; 7; 15; 22; 23].
However, in this article, attention is focused on the analysis of the influence of various factors on the dynamics of the titular population of each country in the region under consideration, who speaks Russian. Separately, labor migration in the direction of Russia is touched upon as one of the key factors determining the current position of the Russian language in the Central Asian states at the present time.
Research results. As a comparative base for the study, we use data on the size of the titular population of Kazakhstan and the republics of Central Asia, recorded during the last All-Union census of 1989. During this census, two categories of the titular population of the republics who speak Russian were distinguished: this is the titular population of the republics as a native language, and representatives of the titular peoples who are fluent in Russian as a second language. At the same time, the highest rate of proficiency in Russian as a native language was recorded among the titular population of Kazakhstan — 1.4 %. In Turkmenistan, this figure was 0.7 %, in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan — 0.5 % each, in Kyr-gyzstan — about 0.3 % [11].
If only a small part of the titular population of the republics of the region considered Russian as their native language, then the number of the titular population, fluent in Russian as a second language, was significant. Thus, in Kazakhstan, 64.2 % of representatives of the titular ethnic group were fluent in Russian as a second language. This was the highest figure among the republics of the Kazakhstan-Central Asian region. The second place was occupied by Kyrgyzstan, where the share of representatives of the titular ethnic group who are fluent in Russian as a second language was 37.3 %. Then followed Tajikistan — 30.5 %, Turkmenistan — 28.3 % and Uzbekistan — 22.7 % (Fig. 1).
The above indicators were formed in conditions when the Russian language was the state language throughout the entire space of the USSR that existed at that time. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in each republic, the language of the titular ethnic group was proclaimed the state language, and the position of the Russian language began to decline
Official site of the Bureau of National Statistics of the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan. URL: https://www.stat.gov.kz/ (accessed: 01.12.2021); Official site of the National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic. URL: http://www.stat.kg/ru (accessed: 01.12.2021); Official website of the Agency on Statistics under the President of the Republic of Tajikistan. URL: http:// www.https://www.stat.tj/ru (accessed: 11/30/2021); Official site of the State Committee of Turkmenistan on Statistics. URL: https://www.stat.gov.tm (accessed: 03.12.2021); Official site of the State Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan on statistics. URL: https:// www.stat.uz/ru/ (accessed: 03.12.2021).
steadily [11]. For the most objective and correct assessment of the change in the absolute and relative size of the titular population of the Central Asian states who speak Russian in the post-Soviet period, it is necessary to rely on materials from later population censuses of
the countries of the region.
%
80
so 40
■ ■
0 -=b 1
Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan
Native language - Russian I Fluency in Russian as a second language
Fig. 1. The proportion of the titular population of Kazakhstan and the Central Asian republics who speak Russian as a native language and as a second language according to the results of the All-Union population census of 1989, %
In the post-Soviet period in Kazakhstan, population censuses were conducted in 1999, 2009 and 2021. Due to the fact that the materials of the last population census of the republic have not yet been published, within the framework of the study it is possible to refer only to the results of the 2009 census. In the Kyrgyz Republic, the population census was conducted in 1999 and 2009, the next population and housing is scheduled for spring 2022. Accordingly, for Kyrgyzstan, the materials of the 2009 population census will be taken into account. In Tajikistan, population censuses were conducted in 2000, 2010 and 2020. However, the results of the population and housing census of the republic, conducted in 2010 in terms of ethno-linguistic composition, have not yet been published, which forces us to use the materials of the 2010 census in the framework of the study. In Turkmenistan, population censuses were conducted in 1995 and 2012, however, have not yet been published, and the data of the 1995 census are not chronologically comparable with the materials of the population censuses of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan in 2009-2010. In Uzbekistan, for the entire postSoviet period, a population census has never been carried out, the first population census of the republic after 1989 is scheduled for autumn 2023.
Taking into account the above information, it seems appropriate to analyze the change in the number of the titular population speaking Russian in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan using the data of population censuses conducted in these states in 2009-2010,
and for Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan to use the expert estimates of A. L. Arefiev [1]. The latter are mainly based on the results of sociological studies in the Central Asian republics, however, they have discrepancies with the results of the study within the framework of the Eurasian Monitor project in 2007. A. L. Arefiev's estimates regarding Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan were also taken into account for ensuring comparability of data for all countries in the region. Of course, the sociological estimates of individual authors are not sources equivalent to the materials of national population censuses, but their use is a forced step in the present study, the reasons for which are explained above.
It should be noted that in the framework of the post-Soviet censuses of the population of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, as well as in the studies of A. L. Arefiev fluency in Russian as a second language was set only during the 2010 census of the population of Tajikistan. Therefore, the authors took into account the data available in the above sources on the size of the titular population who are fluent in Russian (without mentioning the category of "second language"), as well as fluent in oral Russian and written with errors (Fig. 2).
%
1
nl .
Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan
2009 2009 2010 2010 2010
Native language - Russian 3 Fluency in Russian as a second language Fluency in Russian ■ Fluency in spoken Russian and written with mistakes
Fig. 2. The share of the titular population of the Central Asian countries who speak Russian,
as of 2009-2010, %
Based on 2009-2010 censuses, the proportion of the titular population who considered Russian as their native language was about 1 % in Kazakhstan, and less than 0.5 % of the population in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan [12]. The question of knowledge of Russian as a second language took place only within the framework of the population census of the Republic of Tajikistan in 2010, according to which 29.1 % of the titular population of Tajikistan answered the corresponding question in the affirmative. Share of the titular population fluent in Russian as of 2009-2010 was 48 % in Kazakhstan, 35 % in Tajikistan, and 25 % in Kyrgyzstan. According to A. L. Arefiev, the same indicators in the period under review were 5.5 % in Uzbekistan, and 4.5 % in Turkmenistan.
As for the titular population, who are fluent in oral Russian and written with errors, we can observe a slightly different situation. In Kazakhstan, according to A. L. Arefiev [1], the corresponding degree of Russian language proficiency was observed in 79.1 % of the titular population, in Tajikistan — 59.2 %, in Kyrgyzstan — 50 %, in Uzbekistan — 35 %, and in Turkmenistan — 14 %.
According to the above statistics, we can conclude that the number of the titular population of the Central Asian countries who speak Russian has significantly decreased in the post-Soviet period. This happened for a number of reasons.
One of the key factors influencing the degree of Russian language proficiency of the titular population of the Central Asian states is the legal status of the Russian language in these states. In Kyrgyzstan, in the first post-Soviet years, the Russian language had the status of "the language of interethnic communication", and in 2000 it received the status of "the official language of the Kyrgyz Republic" [15]. However, in the republic, on the basis of the Law "On amendments and amendments to certain legislative acts of the Kyrgyz Republic"9, adopted in 2014, since 2020, the gradual translation of the office work of organizations and economic entities has been carried out completely into the Kyrgyz language [3; 15].
In state organizations of the Republic of Kazakhstan and local self-government bodies, the Russian language is officially used along with the Kazakh language. According to the Decree of the Constitutional Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 10/2 dated May 8, 1997, "... This constitutional norm is understood unequivocally that in state organizations and local governments, Kazakh and Russian languages are used equally, equally, regardless of any"10. Along with the state language, the Russian language in Kazakhstan retains the entire range of functions. In June 2011, the President of Kazakhstan signed the Decree "On the State Program for the Development and Functioning of Languages in the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2011-2020". The goal of the program is a harmonious language policy that ensures the full functioning of the state language as the most important factor in strengthening Kazakhstani identity and unity, while preserving the languages of all peoples living in Kazakhstan. The objectives of the program included strengthening the positions of the Kazakh language (by 2020 — 90 %), as well as a systematic increase in the number of people who speak Russian (by 2020 — 90 %) and English (by 2020 — 25 %). Later, the government of Kazakhstan revised this program and published the latest version — "The State Program for the Development and Functioning of Languages in the Republic of Kazakhstan". This program was slightly modified, and its main goal was to increase the proportion of the population that speaks three languages (state, Russian and English) by 2020 to 15 % [3; 23].
In Tajikistan, after gaining independence, the status of the language of interethnic communication was assigned to the Russian language, but in 2009 a new law of the republic on the state language was adopted, which did not spell out the corresponding status of the Russian language. In 2011, amendments were adopted to this law of the Republic of Tajikistan, which returned the former status of the "language of interethnic communica-
9 Database of normative legal acts of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. URL: http://minjust.gov.kg/ru/ (accessed 22.10.2021).
10 State register of normative legal acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan. URL: https://zanorda.kz/ru/ (accessed 22.08.2021).
tion" to the Russian language11. В In July 2014 and August 2019, the President of Tajikistan approved, respectively, the "State Program for Improving the Teaching and Learning of Russian and English in the Republic of Tajikistan for 2015-2020" and "The State Program for Improving the Teaching and Learning of Russian and English in the Republic of Tajikistan for the period up to 2030".
In 1989, the Law "On the State Language" was adopted in Uzbekistan, which clearly stated that "the State language of the Republic of Uzbekistan is the Uzbek language", and the Russian language is defined as "the language of interethnic communication". In 1992, the Constitution of the Republic was adopted, where in Art. 4 states that "The state language of the Republic of Uzbekistan is the Uzbek language"12. At the same time, nothing is mentioned in the Constitution about the status of the Russian language. However, it should be noted that until now, most of the legal acts adopted in Uzbekistan at the republican level, in particular, laws, Decrees and Resolutions of the President, Resolutions of the Cabinet of Ministers, as a rule, are translated into Russian and are made publicly available on official websites of state authorities and legal portals of the republic.
Back in 1990, Turkmen was legally approved as the state language in Turkmenistan, and the status of "means of interethnic communication" was assigned to Russian. In 1996, the Russian language lost this status and is no longer mentioned in the legislative framework of the republic13.
It is obvious that the official legal status of the Russian language, which is the most favorable for maintaining its public positions, among the countries of Central Asia is provided in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and to a lesser extent in Tajikistan. In Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, however, any special status for the Russian language is not legally fixed, which does not increase the practical interest in mastering the Russian language among the titular population and creates a certain social discomfort for that part of it, for which the main means of communication is the Russian language.
The decline in the number of ethnic Russians as a result of their intensive migration outflow in the post-Soviet period had a great influence on the deterioration of conditions that provide motivation and real opportunities to master the Russian language in the countries of the region. From the 1989 census to 2009/2012 (taking into account differences in the years of censuses and statistical estimates in the countries of the region), the share of the Russian population in the region has more than halved (Fig. 3).
The decline of the Russian population in the period under review was noted in all countries of the region. At the same time, the most significant decrease in the proportion of Russians in the national composition of the population was recorded in the Republic of Tajikistan, which in 1992-1997 was engulfed in a civil war, which caused a very intensive emigration of the non-titular population from the country. A significant reduction in the Russian population is also characteristic of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan. Relatively well things are in the Republic of Kazakhstan, where for the period 1989-2009 only a third of the Russian population emigrated [11], but at the same time, the share of Russians in the ethnic structure of the country's population has significantly decreased.
11 National Center for Legislation under the President of the Republic of Tajikistan. URL: http://ncz.tj/ (accessed 22.08.2021).
12 National database of legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan. URL: https://lex.uz/ru/ (accessed 26.08.2021).
13 Legislation of the CIS. Legislation of Turkmenistan. URL: http://www.tm.spinform.ru/ (accessed 22.08.2021).
ncKoecKUù pesnoHO^osunecKUû trnypuan. TOM 18. № 2 / 2022
Fig. 3. Change in the share of Russians in the ethnic structure of the population of Central Asian countries in the period from 1989 to 2009/2012
The key factors in the intensive emigration of Russians from the countries of the region in the post-Soviet period were the economic recession, the closure of many industrial enterprises that employed the majority of the Russian population, as well as the de-Russification of the language space. The relatively low outflow of Russians from Kazakhstan correlates with rather high (at least comparable to Russian) indicators of the level and quality of life in the republic for the post-Soviet space, as well as with the official legal conditions created here to support and develop the Russian language [5; 6].
Undoubtedly, the transformation of the education system in the countries of the region in the post-Soviet period, which manifested itself in a decrease in the number of Russian-speaking educational institutions and the number of students in Russian, played a major role in changing the degree of distribution of the Russian language among the titular population of the countries of Central Asia. This trend has become common for most countries of the post-Soviet space. Thus, using the example of secondary (school) education, one can see that over the 20 years after the collapse of the USSR, the number of students studying in Russian in the CIS countries and the number of Russian-language schools, gymnasiums and lyceums has decreased by almost three times, which suggests a decline in key indicators of the Russian-speaking education (Table 1) [1; 2].
Differences in the positions of the Russian language in the countries of Central Asia, to some extent, are obviously due to the different degree of their participation in integration associations together with Russia. These include the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan participate in all four integration associations. Tajikistan is a member of the CIS, SCO and CSTO, but is not a member of the EAEU. Uzbekistan is a member of the CIS and SCO, and
in 2020 received observer status in the EAEU. Uzbekistan also participated in the work of the CSTO in 1992-1999 and in 2006-2012. Turkmenistan, which declared a neutral status in 1995, currently participates only as an associate member in the work of the CIS; the republic does not take any part in the work of other integration associations. Consequently, the greatest degree of foreign policy and foreign economic attraction to Russia is observed in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and the smallest in Turkmenistan. Undoubtedly, the cooperation of the Central Asian countries with Russia within the framework of various integration associations creates the prerequisites for the formation of mechanisms for the "soft" impact of the Russian state and its foreign policy on strengthening and improving the position of the Russian language in a particular country in the region. In general, there is an obvious connection between the degree of involvement of the countries of Central Asia in political and economic unions with Russia and the positions of the Russian language in them.
Table 1
Changes in indicators of Russian-language secondary education in the CIS countries in the period 1990-2010 (according to sources [1; 2])
Indicators 1990-1991 study year 2010-2021 study year Change
Number of students studying in Russian, thousand people 8866.2 2934.9 -5931.3
Number of Russian-language primary and secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums 12754 4866 -7888
Number of bilingual primary and secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums (with classes/parallels in Russian) 5107 3727 -1380
The features of the information base of the study determined the possibility of comparing the indicators of Russian language proficiency among the titular population of the countries of Central Asia only in the time interval of 1989-2010 since it is not yet feasible to objectively assess the dynamics of the studied indicator in the states of the region over 30 post-Soviet years. However, it seems appropriate and possible to analyze some of the factors that affect the degree of Russian language proficiency among representatives of the titular population of the countries of Central Asia at the present stage. Some of these factors contribute to the strengthening of the positions of the Russian language in the countries of the region, while others, on the contrary, cause their further weakening.
Undoubtedly, the continuing reduction of the Russian and Russian-speaking population in the countries of the region has a negative impact on the prevalence of the Russian language in the everyday reality of the Central Asian states. Thus, the content of table 2 shows that in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan for the period 2011-2020 the number of Russians and their share in the ethnic composition of the population decreased significantly. This means that the Russian-speaking environment is steadily shrinking in the countries of the region, in contact with which representatives of the titular ethnic groups usually develop the practice of mastering the Russian language. The process of decreasing the number of the Russian population can thus be recognized as one of the factors that negatively affects the degree of knowledge of the Russian language by representatives of the titular population of the states of Central Asia.
Changes in the absolute and relative number of Russians in selected countries of Central Asia (2011-2020)*
№ Country 01.01.2011 01.01.2020
Number of Russians, thousand people Share in the ethnic structure of the population, % Number of Russians, thousand people Share in the ethnic structure of the population, %
1 Kazakhstan 3752.9 22.8 3512.9 18.9
2 Kyrgyzstan 394.7 7.2 344.9 5.3
3 Uzbekistan 852.3 3.0 725.1 2.1
*Notes: 1) the table was compiled according to the data of the Bureau of National Statistics of the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic, the State Committee on Statistics of the Republic of Uzbekistan as of 1.01.2011 and 1.01.2020; 2) due to the lack of information on the national composition of the population of Tajikistan and Turkmenistan as of January 1, 2011 and January 1, 2020, data for these two countries are not included in the table.
The factors that negatively affect the position of the Russian language in the society of the Central Asian states now and in the future include the fact that in the countries of the region the nationalization of the official-legal and cultural-linguistic space is increasing, as a result of which the use of the Russian language in the areas of lawmaking is decreasing, public administration, mass media. These processes, firstly, objectively reduce the motivation of representatives of the titular population of the Central Asian republics to learn Russian, as they gradually level the importance of the Russian language proficiency factor to ensure career and, in general, social growth of an individual person in changing socio-cultural and legal conditions. And secondly, they continue to stimulate the migration outflow of the Russian-speaking population from the countries of the region, which means they increase the narrowing of the sphere of Russian-speaking communication, as mentioned above.
At the same time, it is impossible not to note the presence of factors that positively influence the position of the Russian language in the countries of Central Asia. Thus, a significant factor in maintaining the interest of the titular population of the states of the region in the knowledge of the Russian language is large-scale labor migration in the direction of the Russian Federation [20]. Possession of a minimum knowledge of the Russian language is a prerequisite for obtaining a work permit in Russia. This provision was spelled out in the federal law of July 25, 2002 No. 115-FZ (as amended on July 2, 2021) "On the legal status of foreign citizens in the Russian"14.
The factor of labor migration increases the interest of the titular population of the Central Asian states in learning the Russian language, primarily to facilitate working conditions in Russia. In addition, labor migrants are also interested in their children learning the Russian language, since labor activity in Russia is seen as a promising way to ensure the material well-being of families in conditions of predominantly low wages in their homeland.
14 Statistical information on the migration situation. URL: https://mvd.rf/ (accessed 15.01.2022).
Indicators of labor migration from Central Asian countries to the Russian Federation for
January-December 2021*
№ Central Asian countries The number of facts of migration registration for the purpose of work, thousand people Population of the countries of the region as of January 1, 2021, thousand people The share of labor migrants in the Russian Federation in the total population of the countries of the region, %
1 Kazakhstan 163.9 18879.5 0.9
2 Kyrgyzstan 884.1 6636.8 13.3
3 Tajikistan 2439.2 9506.3 25.6
4 Turkmenistan 7.9 6063.1 0.1
5 Uzbekistan 4519.6 34558.9 13.1
* The table was compiled based on the materials of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation at the end of 2021, the Bureau of National Statistics of the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic, the Agency on Statistics under the President of the Republic of Tajikistan, the State Committee on Statistics of the Republic of Uzbekistan and the site https ://countrymeters.info/ as of early 2021.
Currently, in Tajikistan, the share of labor migrants is 25.6 % of the total population of the country, and in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan — more than 13 %, while in Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, the corresponding figures are small (Table 3). Consequently, labor migration in the direction of Russia as a factor motivating the study of the Russian language is most pronounced in the conditions of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. It is important to note that people under the age of 35, that is, representatives of the generation brought up in the post-Soviet period, mainly go to Russia from the countries of Central Asia to work. They develop the skills of Russian-speaking communication due to living in Russia. In Uzbekistan, where the Russian language does not have any official status, it is the factor of active labor migration towards Russia that is one of the key factors in supporting interest in learning the Russian language.
In order to preserve the positions of the Russian language in the society of the countries of Central Asia, the activities of Russian-speaking educational institutions, primarily general education schools, are of great importance. It should be noted that in the countries of the region there is still a high interest of the titular population in obtaining education in Russian, and teaching in schools with the Russian language in the context of a sharp narrowing of the domestic Russian-speaking environment due to the migration outflow of the Russian population has become the main opportunity for the young generation to practically master Russian skills. language. Table 4 shows the dynamics of the number of students in general education institutions with the Russian language of instruction in 2011-2020 in the countries of Central Asia, except for Turkmenistan, for which the authors could not find data in open sources.
Number of students in general education institutions with Russian as the language
of instruction (2011-2020)*
Countries 2011-2012 study year 2020-2021 study year
Number of students, % of total Number of students, % of total
thousand people students thousand people students
Kazakhstan 831.8 32.9 1098.1 31.5
Kyrgyzstan* 119.2 17.9 168.2 24.2
Tajikistan 48.5 2.9 102.6 4.9
Uzbekistan 352.5 7.7 642.3 10.2
* Data are given for the contingent of schools with one language of instruction, data for schools with a mixed language of instruction in the context of individual languages of instruction are not provided in open sources.
Table 4 shows that in all four countries under consideration over the past period (2011-2020), the number of students in Russian-speaking general education institutions has increased. The share of schoolchildren studying in Russian in the total number of students in general education institutions also increased, with the exception of Kazakhstan, where this indicator decreased from 32.9 % to 31.5 %. The highest rates of the absolute and specific number of students in schools with the Russian language of instruction are noted in Kazakhstan, and the lowest in Tajikistan, which generally correlates with differences in the proportion of Russians in the ethnic composition of the population of the countries of the region. At the same time, in all four countries, the share of students in general education institutions with the Russian language of instruction in the total number of schoolchildren significantly exceeds the share of Russians in the ethnic composition of the population, which indicates that Russian-language education is in high demand among the titular population of the countries of the region. Of certain importance for the formation of an elementary level of Russian language proficiency by representatives of the titular nations of the countries of the region is also the teaching of the Russian language as a compulsory subject in schools with national languages of instruction.
The Russian language is also widely represented in the system of higher education in the countries of the region. Thus, according to the data of national statistical authorities, at the beginning of the 2020-2021 academic year, the number of university students studying in Russian in Kazakhstan was 170.6 thousand people. (29.6 % of the total contingent of universities of the republic), in Uzbekistan — 84.8 thousand people. (14.8 %), the same indicator at the beginning of the 2019-2020 academic year in Tajikistan was 38.1 thousand people (16.6 % of all students), and in Kyrgyzstan at the beginning of the 2016 — 17 academic year — 120.9 thousand people (68.9 %). The proportion of university students studying in Russian in all four countries significantly exceeds the share of Russians in the national structure of the population, and in Kyrgyzstan, significantly more students study in Russian than in Kyrgyz. The positions of Russian-language higher education are also being strengthened by increasing the number of branches of Russian universities in the countries of the region. So, in recent years only in Uzbekistan their number has increased to 15.
The positions of the Russian language are also preserved in the science of the countries of Central Asia, which is manifested in the writing of dissertations, scientific articles and
other works in Russian. This is especially evident in the fields of physical and mathematical, medical, biological, chemical, technical, geological and mineralogical sciences, while in the humanities, national languages are mainly used. As an illustration, we present data on the language structure of scientific articles published in four issues of the scientific journal "Reports of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan" during 2020 (Table 5). The journal specializes in publishing articles on natural, physical, mathematical and technical sciences. Thus, it is obvious that in the field of education and science in the countries of Central Asia, Russian remains one of the main, most used languages at the present time.
Table 5
Distribution by language of scientific articles published in the journal "Reports of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan" ("DAN RUz") in 2020
No of "Reports of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan" in Uzbek in Russian in English Total Articles
number of articles % number of articles % number of articles %
No 1, 2020 4 23.5 11 64.7 2 11.8 17
No 2, 2020 0 0.0 15 93.8 1 6.3 16
No 3, 2020 1 6.3 13 81.3 2 12.5 16
No 4, 2020 4 23.5 13 76.5 0 0.0 17
Conclusions. As the analysis of the results of population censuses in the countries of Central Asia and expert assessments shows, in the period 1989-2010 in all states of the region, the level of Russian language proficiency of representatives of the titular population has significantly decreased. At the same time, the highest level of the spread of the Russian language throughout this period was observed in Kazakhstan, and the lowest — in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, the corresponding indicators of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan can be assessed as average against the background of the region as a whole. Differences between countries in the degree of proficiency in the titular population of the Russian language and its dynamics are due to such factors as the absolute and specific size of the Russian population, communication with which largely ensures the formation of practical skills in Russian language proficiency, the official legal status of the Russian language, which largely determines the social comfort of living for the Russian-speaking population, the development of Russian-speaking education and the degree of participation of states in various integration associations together with Russia.
It is not feasible to quantify the degree of Russian language proficiency of the titular population of the Central Asian states at the present stage due to the lack of published data from the last censuses of the population of Kazakhstan and Tajikistan conducted in 2021 in terms of the linguistic composition of the population and the fact that the next population censuses in Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan scheduled for 2022, and in Uzbekistan, where no population census has been conducted since 1989, for 2023.
However, an analysis of the key factors that determine the position of the Russian language in the countries of Central Asia in modern conditions has simultaneously shown the presence of prerequisites for both stability and a further decrease in the level of Russian language proficiency among the titular population of the states of the region. At the same time, positive factors include intensive labor migration in the direction of Russia, which
increases the motivation for studying the Russian language by representatives of the titular population of the countries of the region, the growth trend in absolute and specific indicators of the contingent of Russian-speaking educational institutions, and the continued widespread use of the Russian language in the field of scientific research and publications. The negative factors are the continuing decline in the number of the Russian population and the trend towards a gradual weakening of the official legal status of the Russian language against the background of the gradual nationalization of the language space in many areas of the society of the countries of the region. Which of these factors manifest themselves and act more strongly, can be clearly assessed only after the publication of the materials of the next censuses of the population of the countries of Central Asia, concerning the linguistic composition of the population. Therefore, there are good reasons to talk about the need to continue research on the issues considered in this article in the coming years.
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About the authors
Alexandr Khokhrin, PhD student of the Department of Geography, Pskov State University, Pskov, Russia.
E-mail: morfius_neo@mail.ru ORCID: 0000-0001-6284-5787
Dr Viktor Fedorko, Secondary School no. 233, Tashkent, Uzbekistan; Acting Associate Professor of the Department of Geography and Natural Resources, Sharaf Rashidov Samarkand State University, Samarkand, Uzbekistan. E-mail: viktor-f-89@mail.ru ORCID: 0000-0001-5917-1742
Сведения об авторах
Хохрин Александр Геннадьевич — аспирант кафедры географии, Псковский государственный университет, г. Псков, Россия. E-mail: morfius_neo@mail.ru ORCID: 0000-0001-6284-5787
Федорко Виктор Николаевич — доктор философии (PhD) по географическим наукам, учитель географии высшей категории, средняя общеобразовательная школа № 233, г. Ташкент, Узбекистан; и. о. доцента кафедры географии и природных ресурсов Самаркандского государственного университета имени Шарафа Рашидова, г. Самарканд, Узбекистан.
E-mail: viktor-f-89@mail.ru ORCID: 0000-0001-5917-1742
Received 16.02.2022.
Received in revised form 14.03.2022.
Accepted 15.06.2022.
Поступила в редакцию16.02.2022 г. Поступила после доработки 14.03.2022 г. Статья принята к публикации 15.06.2022 г.
