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274THE DESIGN OF MONGOLIAN YURTS (GER): GENESIS, TYPOLOGY, FRAME AND MODULAR TECHNOLOGIES AND
THEIR TRANSFORMATIONS
Nikiforov B.S.
Department «General engineering discipline» of the Buryat State Agricultural Academy n.a. V. R. Filippov,
Candidate of Technical Sciences, senior lecturer
Ulan-Ude, Russia Baldorzhieva V.B.
Postgraduate of the Chair of Theology and Religious Studies of Buryat State University
Ulan-Ude, Russia Nikiforov S.O.
Institute of Physical Materials Science of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor
of Technical Sciences, Professor, principal researcher
Ulan-Ude, Russia Markhadaev B.E.
Institute of Physical Materials Science of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Сandidate of Technical Sciences, senior researcher
Ulan-Ude, Russia
ABSTRACT
This paper considers genesis issues, typology and evolution of yurts, the traditional Mongolian dwelling. It is noted that framework and modular architecture is typical of this type of dwelling and it is still widely used nowadays. Peculiarities of computer designing of products are presented and their quality parameters and requirements are formulated.
The block and module model of framework yurt architecture is presented as a doubly connected graph. Specificities of building unsupported log structure wooden yurts are considered. Modern improved modifications of yurts as well as new framework and module yurt designs from composite materials are presented. Keywords: nomadism, nomadic dwellings(yurts), genesis, frame and modular typologies.
Introduction
Design in general and design and production culture in particular forms is the basis of a specific lifestyle. It dictates the perception of the value of balanced imbedding of humans into the environment taking into account the compliance of their life behavior with the ecological, aesthetical and moral peculiarities of a view of life within the surrounding ethnos, comfort, safety with the pronounced strive for constant improvement of life conditions with adequate reaction to societal challenges (especially in the conditions of globalization).
In the global sense it is the design that is viewed as a catalyst of the implementation of ideas that constantly accompany human activity since the ancient times up to this day. At the same time, a necessity to consider regional peculiarities, such as geographical, climatic and ethnic (including religion), aesthetic traditions, types and modes of innovative development of the society is obvious in implementation of the design.
In the contemporary conditions of market economy, socioeconomic and cultural changes special interest emerges to the study of nomadic traditions and their peculiarities. It arises from the fact that nomadism still exists in the contemporary technological civilization. This is definitely determined by not only socioeconomic factors, but to a great extent regional specificities, primarily natural and climatic conditions. The resiliency of nomadism is a result of economic rationality, efficiency and productivity of nomadic economies since cattle breeding has provided vital activity of the
population in Mongolia by giving food and raw materials. Despite the fact that nomadism is widespread in the entire world, mixed territories such as semi-deserts or steppes bordering with mountainous regions are most suitable for nomads. These are the so-called "Eurasian steppes", especially, Central Asian plateau and steppes with sharply continental climate sometimes referred to as the "Great Steppe" [1]. The eastern part of the Great Steppe, especially the territory of contemporary Mongolia with its unique geographical location and special climate has benign environment for the existence of mobile nomadic cattle breeding. There, in the western and middle part of the Mongolian territory mountainous regions with high mountain ranges, wide valleys and depressions prevail. The eastern and southeastern parts of the territory are predominantly flat. Nomadic cattle breeding is a material production with specific features. However, there are no significant long term changes in the way of life and production since production relations, social development and lifestyle of nomads turned out to be very stable. The material and substantive world created by the nomads (living space and everyday life): dwellings, belongings, household items, means of transport, clothes, and weaponry over the ages acquired forms and functions most suitable for mobile lifestyle. The monograph [2] features peculiar genesis and evolution of yurt-like structures for various purposes, including dwellings of the nomadic peoples on the basis of a retrospective analysis of peculiarities and varieties (typology) of proto-dwellings depending on
the existing and available technologies and construction materials. The evolution of nomadic dwellings and their transformation from mobile to sedentary housebuilding is demonstrably traced. Their classification highlighting the modular principle of their construction is provided.
Peculiarities of project development, product quality ratings and the process of their development
Manufacturing of various products created prerequisites for the emergence of modern design including computer design technologies [3]. Creating products the analysis forms a basis of the designer project development taking into account the functional and technical specifics of a product, builds up a necessary order of modules, and determines economic feasibility thus forming an internally coherent spatially holistic system. The necessity of obtaining improved functional characteristics and increasing of user value of the products requires special attention of a designer to a complex of functions provided by the choice of the main structural assemblies (modules) and structural relations between them as well as to the material and manufacturing methods (technologies) [3]. The aggregate of the formed performance attributes of product may be divided into two groups: those aimed at getting useful effect during the use; production costs and operation. With that the use and functions of a product bring their criteria into its assessment. The logic of a model of artistic designing can conveniently be presented as "morphology" of product and its "axiology" [19], where morphology denotes the structure of a product purposefully formed by a man in the process of the product's creation. This means that the designer reveals tangible natural properties of the created object. However, besides shaping of
product useful functions should be fulfilled, such as socially valuable properties defining a term "axiology". The opening phase of design development presupposes axiology, that is, a comprehensive analysis of what a product is for a consumer and how it interacts with a consumer and society. After the analysis a synthesis stage follows. It includes the creation of an acceptable morphological structure, compositional working out of product's form and its elements including artistic finish, for example, ornamental garnish [3-10]. Specifics of morphology of a studied object are exposed, topology of functional and layout structures in general and their modules, including the character of their collocation in a system (product) is studied. Since every module is characterized by a certain number of features reflecting elements of similarity or difference, their classification according to the set criteria is carried out. A systemic approach to the analysis of functional models (systems) is efficient. It includes their holistic view, in particular, to expose the synergetic properties of something to which the interaction and mutual influence of modules leads. In this way, morphology and classification illustrates the properties of the modules and the product as a whole and typology (evolution analysis) reflects the evolution of objects in the light of traditions of their use. Developing and using a high quality product it is necessary to distinguish the notions of quality of the development process (modeling, designing, and manufacturing), operation, service and indicators of the product itself (see fig. 1).
An object developed by a designer is an entity, spatially organized by means of technical and artistic design, which, if needed, may be materialized at least in one copy. For instance, this can be achieved by means of rapid prototyping of products [3], which allows reacting timely to market situation and demands.
Fig. 1. Quality parameters of product, development process, operation and maintenance
The following characteristic features of design may be outlined:
• Design is a result of constructional rationality and functionality of product;
• Design is an applied science with innovation component allowing absorbing interest in the end;
• Design does not create anything concrete, but creates properties and if the product is materialized at least in a single copy they are fully manifested;
• Design is characterized by synergetic properties when, harmonizing performance attributes of a product, its technical and artistic components aesthetically influence a consumer, present a special effect of product quality in accordance with the possibilities of modern technologies and materials and comply with modern requirements to manufactured products;
• Means of design are used to develop not a form, but a product, its elements (modules), their interaction and collocation in it;
• Design is characterized by the quality of a structure, that is, rational organization of a product when it is perceived as a single whole both from the viewpoint of serviceability for a consumer and from the production standpoint. Fig. 2 presents a procedure of a general approach to the formation of a product inclusive of its morphological and axiological properties.
The implementation of this number of quality parameters is a goal of project development. Material embodiments of quality parameters are the goal of manufacturing. A project is the result of project development. A produce is the result of manufacturing.
Computer design technologies of rapid prototyping
A way from an idea to an end product should be as short as possible since to react timely to market demands by manufacturing quality products means to ensure competitive strengths to the manufacturer. The use of computer design technologies is advantageous for rapid reaction to changes of market conditions and demands [3-5]. This primarily refers to the use of rapid prototyping procedures and the following duplication in mass production.
A need of developmental prototypes-models (prototypes) arises in the process of development of new produce [5].
The term "prototype" in engineering means an approved working model or developmental prototype and may be related to both maquette, or a materialized image of an object, and a functional item capable of fulfilling the required functions. The prototype models are needed for:
- efficient sales market segmentation through display of samples of the developed product to consumers;
- use in promotional campaigns;
- higher quality development of aesthetically perfect exterior shapes and performance attributes of a product (ergonomics, etc.);
entering of necessary adjustments by designers before production startup.
Fig. 2. The general approach procedure to forming of a product inclusive of its morphological and axiological
properties
In this way, already at the prototyping stage there is a possibility to assess the aesthetic and performance attributes of a product. If required, constant updating of product design, entering of adjustments and ongoing modernization of the product are possible.
It is possible to conduct various tests on a physical analogue even before the final version is ready, carry out checks of product form parameters, assemblability and serviceability of the developed product.
The prototype is convenient in applied problems that require parts shape assessment and test as well as characteristics of the developmental prototype (maquette). On Fig. 3 there is an algorithm of a hierarchical sequence of implementation of the process "computer design - prototyping technologies" where level 1 represents a project stage, level 2 represents the process of
implementation of computer design procedure (including the possibility of decorative design of the designed product if it is allowed by TOR requirements); level 3 reflects a creation phase of the solid model of a product.
Thus, generally speaking, in the course of machine designing work-up it is necessary to distinguish the following aspects:
- the machine design-layout design of a product in general and computer modeling of its decoration;
- choice of mechatronic prototype reproduction technology [9-18];
- expert assessment of the prototype and follow-on revision of the project;
- duplication.
Fig. 3. The algorithm of computer design prototyping
On the genesis of yurts
The wisdom of the ages helped the Mongols to develop a kind of microclimate system materialized in the compositional construction of a Mongolian felt yurt (ger), in which the spatial form and constructional basis are subordinate to the creation of comfortable living conditions in the harsh climate of Mongolia. A centuries-long practice of using the ger worked out a conical form of the construction (framework of a roof). M.M. Gerasimov [11] describes the Upper Paleolithic dwellings in this way, "the cup-like hollow of the floor was thoroughly tramped down, and then thin long poles were installed obliquely circle-wise forming a cone. Only two poles, the shortest and heaviest of all, were tied to each other. They were located on each side of the smoke flap and served as a kind of entrance frame. The longest pole ran through the middle of the dwelling resting on the Y-intersection of the short poles. By the wall base at an equal distance from each other side poles were installed interchangeably to the right and left. Probably they numbered 18 or 20. A width of the roof wall sewn from animal hides was placed atop the cone. Its edges were wrapped up above. Below, near the inner side of the foundation, the roof wall was fixed with pins made from horn pitched in a circular form into the ground. Along the outer side of the foundation massive flagstones were obliquely installed. A steep slope was near the entrance and opposite to it flagstones were sloping only slightly. Then the cut horn stems were laid." The article [12] is an attempt to trace the sequence of emergence and development of a laced yurt, beginning from a hovel. Wandering hunters and cattle herders used temporary dwellings made from poles and animal hides. Following the migrating animal herds a man adapted his dwelling to the nomadism. The nomadic lifestyle required frequent changes of places to stay. Therefore, the primitive form of dwelling had to be portable and easy to install on a new encampment. Depending on the climatic and geographical conditions in the territory of Buryatia there were various types of dwellings. In the northern forested areas reindeer skin tents were still widespread in the 19th century, while in the southern steppes they evolved to the highest form of a hovel - a laced yurt. The most likely place of origin of a laced yurt is, probably, the steppe. The frame of the yurt consists of thin wooden rods. It is easy to disassemble and assemble. This is extremely convenient for transportation. Forest people did not need wood. Moreover, they did not have such large herds as nomads of the steppes that, over a year, covered long distances in search of forage for grazing animals. Only treeless territories taught a nomad to value wood and use it sparingly. The former thick poles of a hovel were replaced by thinner ones. For that willow, withes and reed found in abundance along river banks and lake shores were used. Undoubtedly, a conical hovel, no matter how large its foundation's diameter, was an inconvenient structure because of its sloped walls. Therefore a pronounced drive to eliminate the slope and make the walls straight occurred. The simplest way to get it was to shatter the poles or bend them. If to place the poles vertically, shatter them and bind them up near one of the rings used to circularly fasten them and then center all
their ends, the result will be a hovel very much like a laced yurt. The lower vertically placed part of the poles will correspond to the framework while the upper part of the poles slanting to the center will form a roof of a laced yurt. A. Erman who visited the Selenga Buryats pointed out the fact that their yurts consisted of poles circularly installed so that their upper parts met. From shattering the upper ends of the poles to binding them up to the polling that formed the lower part of a hovel is just one step. Thus, the result of it was a yurt. Its further development included the transfer from polling to a frame. Then the frame got a special form of outward bend and the conical top was replaced by a complex spheroid one. Particular ingenuity is required to produce bent poles. The outward bend is made with the help of a specific tool with small metallic teeth and a special opening into which a master puts a stick, having first heated it in fire, and presses the other end with the weight of his body. In such a manner the rod is given a bend of polygonal or flattened quadrangular form in section. Then the rod is drilled in the places of crossing and straps made of dried thin intestines are run into the openings. Their ends are knotted. Originally the fastening of the poles was carried out by simple knotting, later by rings (urtehen, urhe) braided from withes. Then the upper parts of the poles forming the framework are embedded into a special ring called "ton ", which is a light hoop bent from birch or willow. Probably the "ton " evolved from the same braided ring and served only for spreading the upper ends of the poles. Only later it was made from wood with openings for embedding poles. Already in the conical hovels we see a prototype of a door frame. Earlier, to make a door opening the poles were simply pulled apart. In some cases they were replaced by a piece of wood. Finally an important change took place in the yurt cover. Animal pelts were replaced by thick felt. In the areas rich in wood the yurts are constructed in timber blocking. They are either hexagonal or octagonal resembling the form of a laced yurt. The roof is supported by four pillars. The hearth is placed between them. The necessity to improve protodwellings in the form of ger-like structures required special attention to the complex of tackled tasks, such as the parameters of the main functional elements (modules) of the product and structural relations between them, construction material and processing methods (technologies), and ergonomics. Breakdown of ger walls into easily assembled and disassembled planes gradually led to the emergence of modules in a form of wall frames (khana) which constitute the dwelling's framework. In such a way, as a result of evolution of form and construction a conical hovel evolved into a perfect type of nomadic dwelling - a laced yurt called ger. Since the laced wall (khana) may be compressed and stretched like a harmonica, by doing so it is possible to change height and width (khana) within certain limits and densely pack the yurt during nomadic movement from place to place. Also, the hinged structure of the khana guarantees seismic resistance of the yurt. After the invention of felt production technology (over three millennia ago) felt was used to cover the yurt on top and sides thus forming a felt ger that reliably protected man both from summer heat and winter cold. The
detailed descriptions of building a national Buryat dwelling in a form of a laced felt and timber-blocking multiangular yurts are presented in the book [13].
Since consumption and function of any product is a sort of its own limitation and, in every given case, impart certain properties to it, this can to a full extent relate to Mongolian yurts (ger) because their design presents a symbiosis of technical and decorative components actively participating in the forming of object and living environments of humans. The process of design development includes both general technical and constructional, economic and specific designer requirements. Two basic functional components are laid in the
foundation of the yurt construction: a wooden framing (framework) and felt covering it. The wooden parts consist of walls (khana), long poles (un'), smoke flap ring (toono) and its pillars (bagana) [2] (fig. 4). One wall (khana) consists of 10-15 wooden poles approximately 1.5 meters long tied to each other in such a way that they could be compressed and expanded. The expanded walls are conjoined full circle. One end of the uni is fastened to its upper part, and another end is inserted into an opening of the toono (smoke flap ring), which is the only window and chimney of a yurt. The toono is supported by two pillars (bagana). All this together forms a wooden
framework of a yurt.
Fig. 4. The main details of the framework of the Mongolian ger.
1. Upper ring of the cover (toono); 2. Poles (uni), forming a basis of the roof; 3. Fold-out wall frame; 4. Door; 5. Beam; 6. Floor; 7. Upper cover; 8. Side cover; 9. Smoke flap cover; 10. Belt (busluur).
Depending on the size and volume of a yurt as well as its total weight and the weight of its upper cover a necessary number of pillars (bagana), supporting the entire structure, are installed. With that, as the dwelling's volume is growing, its foundation proportionally gains length and width so that it could support the entire load. The most widespread four-wall frame (khana) yurt does not have an internal pillar. Its entire framework is supported by belts (khoshlon, busluur), which tie up around the khana (wall frame) and are fastened by the door sides. Loosening up or rupture of these belts
means that the wall frames (khana) have no support and the entire upper and side parts of the yurt together will felt cover will fall apart. These belts can only support the load of 4 or 5-khana dwellings, but not more. That is why the yurts with more than five khanas have pillars supporting the upper cover and stabilizing the dwelling. In 6-8-khana yurts two pillars are installed while four pillars are installed in 9-12-khana yurts. Insolation, airing and lighting of the yurts get through the upper opening, which is simultaneously a sort of sunglass to determine the time of day. A yurt is easy to transport, assemble and disassemble. It takes about an hour to fully disassemble the yurt and two hours to fully assemble it. This speed of assembly and disassembly is explained by the fact that all parts of a yurt are precisely aligned
and standardized. Therefore, objects such as yurts (gér) are a classical example of nomadic proto-design that strictly corresponded to the specific features of their everyday life and economy, climatic conditions and natural environment, technical level of their epoch and specific properties of local construction materials.
The semantics of the word "yurt" meaning nomadic dwelling is explained in the book [2] in the following manner. The word "yurt" stems from the Turkic word "urto", which means "camping ground" or "stow"
where nomads placed their dwellings. In literal translation from Turkic it does not mean "dwelling". European travelers, who first encountered the Turkic people, brought this term in the language later as a common name of a nomadic dwelling.
Fig. 5 shows the most widespread yurt (5-khana) [14]. Mongolian names of its constituent elements (modules) and their dimensions are provided (see appendix).
Fig. 5. A 5-wall-frame yurt.
It is noted [15] that the Mongols of Outer Mongolia built octagonal and dodecagonal round log yurts without using a log structure technology. They all were examples of pillar construction. In this work [16] it is admitted that such genesis of multiangular log yurts could emerge in a symbiosis of construction traditions of multiangular dwellings of pillar construction and acquired log structure technology. It is also noted that in the 19th - early 20th centuries three characteristic roof designs were distinguished. One of the roof types was fixed on four pillars called "teendi" symmetrically located on the edges of hearth space and slightly overtopping the walls. In the upper parts of the pillar butt ends a square frame called "kharaasa" was fixed in specially cut notches. From its corners joists were laid to
the opposite walls. Yurts with roofs in a form of a regular and multifaceted pyramid made from longitudinal struts (similar to uni) interconnected by notches were spread only locally among Zakamensk Buryats. The roofing of such wooden yurts had a framework system of a felt yurt but was not circular in form, but looked like a polygon due to a number of walls (pile roof). Invention of a pile roof of a multiangular yurt belonged to the Khakass people [20]. In Cisbaikalia for ages the yurts were built of wood. Their framework was formed from logs, wall junctures were cut "in a paw" and a separate conical roof had a framework in a form of a heap and roof timber affixed above along the chimney perimeter. In Zakamna (Buryatia's southeast) the inner framework of the roof was unsupported (fig. 6).
Fig. 6. The scheme of the ceiling of internal roofframework of a wooden unsupported yurt (khiikharaasa). A general drawing of such wooden yurt is given on fig. 7.
Fig. 7. A general drawing of a wooden unsupported yurt.
Due to a special scheme of the ceiling "kharaasa " of the internal framework of the roof a useful space of the yurt is sufficiently increased (the authors possess engineering documentation to construct an unsupported
8-wall-frame yurt 40 sq m in area). In the 20th century such yurts already had iron roofing. Roofing modules are shown on fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Roof module: 1 - cleats; 2 - iron roofing; 3 - dust baffle; 4. inner board ceiling; 5. stringer. The chimney
opening also underwent modernization (fig. 9).
Fig. 9. A modernized chimney opening of an unsupported wooden yurt.
Improvements of such construction were proposed in the USA. The main differences in the construction were the scaled up mesh of grid while the wood strip size remained the same, less wood strips and the number of poles (uni) with the gain in strength (poles became thicker). A special design was used for fixing the poles. The center of the roof (toono) is made of metal as an equilateral octangle with 16 small drift bolts. The poles are inserted into pre-drilled openings. The yurt is
built of pine boarding. For the wall-roof joint metal elements are used.
Nowadays the East Siberian State University of Technology and Management in Ulan-Ude develops frame yurts with the umbrella scheme of roof design with supporting poles from composite materials (Pat. # 123429) (fig. 10) with prototyping according to the algorithm shown on fig. 3 [5].
Fig. 10. An umbrella yurt framework from composite materials.
Such construction is very sturdy, durable, easy to Block and modular design of the yurts contains
assemble and disassemble, but its cost is twice as high two super-blocks (fig. 12) where 1 is "cylindrical" base
as the cost of wooden and felt yurts. of the frame and 2 - conical part of the frame (roof). The topologic characteristics of the framework
Fig. 2. Super-blocks of the framework architecture of the yurt: 1. Conical roof frame; 2. Cylindrical base
The interconnection of these super-blocks by means of yurt modules may be presented as a doubly connected graph (fig. 13) where rectangles on top of the
graph represent yurt modules and edges mean connections between them.
gér
Fig. 13. Block and modular scheme of yurt architecture as a doubly connected graph.
To characterize the yurt parameters on the basis of various descriptor attributes and knowing the pre-defined number of wall frames (khana) it is possible to classify the yurts according to several topologic parameters known as form-factors [17]. For instance, as a
form-factor one may select the ratio of area (S) of a circle with R radius to the area of a polygon around the circle Spol. (fig. 14) or the ratio of length L=2nr of circumference to its area Spol.
Fig. 14. A circle inscribed in a polygon: r- circle's radius; a - size of a polygon's side.
These form-factors are topologic characteristics (see table).
Table
n - number of sides of a regular polygon Inscribed circle radius a r =- tgn/n Polygon area SMH. = 0,5 nar Topologic factor nr T, =2 — na Topologic factor 4n ?2= — na
3 0,29 a 0,43 a2 0,6 4n
4 0,5 a a2 0,8 £ a
5 0,69a 1.72a2 0,86 a
6 0.89a 2.6a2 0,91 2n 3a
8 0.21a 4.83a2 0,95 0.5 £ a
10 1.54a 7.7a2 0,97 TZ 0,4— a
The second topologic parameter T2 is more informative in terms of a possibility to trace the character of T2 dependence depending on a size of a yurt (length of a wall frame khana).
Conclusion
This paper considers genesis issues, typology and evolution of yurts, the traditional Mongolian dwelling. It is noted that framework and modular architecture is typical of this type of dwelling and it is still widely used nowadays. Peculiarities of computer designing of products are presented and their quality parameters and requirements are formulated.
The block and module model of framework yurt architecture is presented as a doubly connected graph. Specificities of building unsupported log structure wooden yurts are considered. Modern improved modifications of yurts as well as new framework and module yurt designs from composite materials are presented. The Mongolian yurt brand is well known in the world. This is explained by a skillful organization of their advertising in various forms and manifestations, such this Mongolian souvenir depicting a yurt on fig. 15.
Fig. 15 The image of a yurt on a Mongolian souvenir.
The unsupported yurt described above was used in covered with wood lathing and larch bark (it does not the southwest of Buryatia since the 19th century. On fig. rot and resists water) and, finally, top soil. 16 you can see a yurt the roof of which at that time was
Fig. 16. An unsupported yurt built in 1898.
Fig. 16. Inside the Yurt which was built in 1898.
Nowadays there are modular unsupported designs of dwellings in a form of a semi-circle with dome roof (developed by the Far Eastern University, Vladivostok, Russia http://www.dvfu.ru) and domed unsupported modular constructions from foam plastic in Japan (www. dome -house.jp).
Thus, the technological longevity of modular constructions of Mongolian yurts goes far beyond the limits of contemporary short innovation cycles.
Appendix
Glossary
Orkh - quadrangular felt, smoke flap (toono).
Tuurga - felt yurt walls.
Bosgo - doorstep.
Doodbusluur - lower hair rope engirdling a yurt.
Deedbusluur - upper hair rope engirdling a yurt.
Khana - wall.
Deever - roof, roofing.
Totogo - upper door jamb.
Toono - chimney opening.
Burees - cover, envelopment, felt.
Tsamkhag - tower, stronghold.
Tsavag - cushion between the cover and lining of a deli (national Mongolian dress), under felt in a yurt.
Tsagirak - hoop, ring.
Khayavch - long narrow piece of felt or interconnected wooden dashboards, forming a solid line engirdling the lower edges of the exterior felt of a yurt for insulation.
Khatavch - joint of a wall frame by the door of a yurt, lower part of a wall frame on both sides of the door.
Khayavch - wooden dashboards.
Khaalga(n) - gates, door.
Sambar - board.
Uzuulelt - demonstrativeness.
Yas mod - roof timber.
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