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M. L. Khorkov
THE CONCEPT OF CONSCIENCE IN THE SERMONS OF JOHN TAULER AND ITS EUCHARISTIC CONTEXT
В статье исследуется контекст употребления термина «совесть» в проповедях Иоганна Таулера и демонстрируется определенная устойчивость его использования, преимущественно в евхаристическом контексте. В этой связи центральным элементом в понимании совести является интенция Таулера интерпретировать ее как преимущественно метафизическое и онтологическое, а не этическое понятие. Совесть представляет собой определенную форму самопознания, что подтверждает этимология немецкого слова gewissen и интерпретация латинского термина conscientia. Заслуживающим внимания также представляется факт увеличения частотности использования термина conscientia в результате рецепции проповедей Таулера в Нидерландах в XV в.
Ключевые слова: Иоганн Таулер, средневековые немецкие проповеди, Таулер в Нидерландах.
It is a commonplace to argue that John Tauler could be considered one of the most important thinkers who made significant contribution to the development of the notion of conscience during the early stages of the development of the German theological and philosophical terminology (Weilner 1961: 162). Meanwhile, in the works that are unambiguously attributed to Tauler (as far as we know, he wrote exclusively in German), the German word for conscience (gewissen as equivalent to the North German word sanwiczekeit) is completely absent (Stormer-Caysa 1998: 8-9) what is typical for the 14th century. Nevertheless, it is documented in the Dictionary of the Brothers Grimm.1
The phenomenon of conscience is described in the extant works of Tauler by the verb gewizen and its adverbial forms. On the other hand, the Latin term conscientia is incorporated into the German texts by Tauler in its original or often in a little modified form. Meanwhile, neither the verb gewizen, nor the participle gewizet originally signify "conscience", rather they denote some specific cognitive functions related either to self-recognition, or to some sort of deep inner awareness, for example, of the other people and motives of their actions and sins (Stormer-Caysa 1998: 16-18, 282).
1 DWB (online-version 23. 11. 2013): gewissen IV (fem. u. neutr.).
It means that from the cognitive point of view conscience must be understood by the majority of the German medieval authors as self-knowledge (Haas 1971), or spiritual knowledge (Ozment 1969) which let the human soul learn itself.
Perhaps, the most interesting topic to investigate in this respect is a detailed study of meanings of the verb gewizen and its adverbial forms invented by Tauler, who combined them with other concepts referring to conscience, and discovered new options for previously unknown meanings in them. These are the reasons for considering Tauler a thinker who developed the concept of conscience in a new and very special way.
The absence of the German term gewissen in the texts by John Tauler is compensated to some extent by the Latin term conscientia which he uses in his German sermons, and by the interference of meanings associated both with this term and with the concept of synderesis in a number of passages which have their roots in the philosophical literature of Stoicism (Stormer-Caysa 1998: 2). It is evident from the surviving manuscripts of the sermons by Tauler which were used in the editions by Ferdinand Vetter (Vetter 1910) and Adolphe Corin (Corin 1924). Some sermons demonstrate a particularly frequent reference to the concept of conscientia, especially sermon number 16 in the edition by A. Corin (Corin 1924: 320-322) which is absent in the edition by F. Vetter.
The fact that the extant texts by Tauler lack any elaborated concept of synderesis may challenge stereotypical interpretations of his role and place in the German mysticism. According to U. Stormer-Caysa, both terms used by Tauler (gewizen and conscientia) are very close to Tauler's interpretation of synderesis in its understanding in the works by Meister Eckhart, namely, as a kind of "grounds of conscience". Therefore, U. Stormer-Caysa believes that the modern German word "Gewissensgrund" - "the foundation of conscience", is the most correct way to express its meaning (Stormer-Caysa 1998: 129-133; Willing 2004: 148, Anm. 52-53).
Tauler pays more attention in his sermons to a detailed description of how the conscience works in the soul when communication of man with God is defiled by sin. Metaphorical brilliance and extraordinary expressiveness of his language reach their maximum strength and meaningfulness in these passages. For example, in one of his sermons Tauler compares the work of the conscience in the human soul with the act of chewing:
"Take the word of St. Bernard: 'If we take physical food to us, so we chew it first, and then it drops gently down into the body'. What does this chewing? St. Bernard says: 'When we eat the God, we are eaten by Him. He consumes us.' When He consumes us? He does it when He punishes us for our mistakes, opens our inner eyes and lets us recognize our infirmities. The God eats us, bites and chews us when He rebukes our conscience. As food in the mouth is moving back and forth this and that way, man is tossed about in fear and dread, sadness and in great bitterness under the judgment of the God, and he does not know how it will happen to him" ("Nu nemen wir S. Bernhartz wort. Als wir lipliche spise essent, so kuwen wir zem ersten, und denne sinket si nider in den lichamen senfteklich. Was ist dis kuwen? Sprach S. Bernhardus: 'wenn wir Got essen, so werden wir von im gessen; so isset er uns.' Wenne isset uns Got? Das tut er wenne er in uns unser gebresten straffet und unser inwendigen ogen uf tut und git uns ze erkennende unser gebresten; wan sin essen das straffet die consciencie, das bissen und das kuwen: als man die spise in dem munde wirffet um her und dar, also wirt der mensche in dem straffende Gotz har und dar geworfen in angst unde vorchte und in trurikeit und in grosse bitterkeit, und enweis wie es im ergan sulle", Vetter 1910: 294, 19-30).2
I think that it is hardly a coincidence that such a strong physiological metaphor was used by Tauler in his sermon on the Catholic feast of Corpus Christi.3 Colorful bodily imagery does not at all contradict the spiritual purpose of the preaching, but, on the contrary, leads to it. The main purpose of preaching is to prepare people for the central event of the liturgy, the Eucharist, and thus, to unite men perfectly with the God. It is represented here both through bodily metaphors and in their sublime spiritual meaning as the essence of what actually takes place during the service in the church. But the most important point here is that both bodily and spiritual aspects are inseparable in the Eucharist, and none of them can implement without the other. And more importantly, both of them
2 See in particular the meaning of the motive "When we eat God, we are eaten by Him" in the book "Nim din selbes war" by A.M. Haas (Haas 1971: 99).
3 Sermon on Corpus Christi Day "Qui manducat meam carnem et bibit meum sanguinem, in me manet et ego in eo" (Ion. 6, 56). See more on this subject in L. Gnädinger (Gnädinger 1993: 344, Anm. 189) and A. Vogt-Terhorst (Vogt-Terhorst 1920: 127).
operate on the human person directly and without any intermediation inside of the human nature (Gnadinger 1993: 344-347).
Therefore, the discourse on conscience is closely associated for Tauler with the Eucharistic context. In general, it is the most frequent context of the use of the word conscientia in the works by Tauler. Unfortunately, it has been consciously or unconsciously ignored by Protestant interpreters since the time of the Reformation (Ozment 1969: 44-45). Tauler believes that it is necessary for human beings to allow the voice of conscience to speak in the soul and to hear it, to realize their own sinfulness and to purify the conscience in order to be properly prepared to receive the sacrament of the Eucharist, thus, to be prepared for the immediate unity of the believer with the God. Exactly for this unity you must first confess your sin - it is a kind of justification of the sacrament of confession, followed by purification of conscience (repentance), and only after that you can take the God into your mouth and unite with Him (the sacrament of the Eucharist). Indeed, a large number of Tauler's texts demonstrate considerable frequency of the term conscientia in those passages where the Eucharistic context is particularly important, for example, the sermon number 16 of the Corin's edition.
The fact that Tauler's sermons were read in the later Middle Ages in this context is confirmed, for example, by the combination of these texts together with sermons and quotations from the writings of St. Augustine (and Pseudo-Augustine) addressed to the monks of the desert and partly dedicated to the theme of conscience. In particular, this combination is found in the manuscript Koninklijke Bibliotheek te Brussel, No. 2283/84 (Cat. II, 1167). It dates back to about 1440. A Dutch translation of Tauler's sermons is placed in it after the sermons of St. Augustine. Interestingly, among the sermons of the Bishop of Hippo the compiler of the manuscript highlights his sermons on conscience. He tells about them in a little preamble that precedes the text of the sermons: "Hier beghint die tafele der sermonen des helighen augustini totten broederen inder woestinen, lvi. Vpden vierden sondach inden aduent 'Van puerheit der consiencien', iij" ("Here begins the table of contents of the sermons of St. Augustine to the brothers in the desert, 56. Among them there is a sermon on the fourth Sunday of Advent 'On the purity of conscience', 3"; f. 1b); "Van puerheit der consciencien dat xxii sermoen" ("On the purity of conscience, sermon 22"; f. 3a; Lieftinck 1936: 3, 5). The sermons of Tauler form the second part of this
manuscript; they are placed immediately after these texts without any gap between the two parts of this collection of texts (ff. 60v-141a).
The noticeable change in frequency of the term conscientia caused by translation of Tauler's texts from German into Dutch is of great interest. The use of the word conscientia in the Dutch translation becomes more frequent because appropriate sermons are selected for translation, and additional inserts into the text are made by translators and compilers. An anonymous compiler explains the reasons for this transformation of terminological frequency. He uses the Latin language for this purpose, perhaps because it is neutral with respect to both languages - German and Dutch. According to him, the frequency increases due to the translation of Tauler's German text into the Flemish dialect: "isti sermones magis correcti secundum linguam flamingam" ("The sermons are mostly corrected respectively to Flemish language"; f. 60v; Lieftinck 1936: 6).
The increase in the frequency of the term consciencie in the Dutch translations of Tauler's sermons can be illustrated with a very interesting example of two manuscripts from Utrecht and Ghent containing the Dutch version of the Tauler's sermon number 16 which is dedicated to the Eucharist (numeration according to the Corin's edition which is based on the Vienna manuscript ONB 2744). There are two main points in this sermon specifically related to our subject: 1) high density of the use of the term consciencie which is quite atypical on the whole for the texts by Tauler; 2) conceptual connection of conscience and the sacrament of Eucharist. It is reasonable to assume that in this case the second point can explain the first one.
In one of the passages of this sermon the key elements of Tauler's idea of conscience are formulated in one sentence showing the internal mechanism of interdependence of repentance and purity of conscience:
"They must behave as if they are the greatest sinners, and they must have repentant conscience which arises from the immaculate purity. And when there will be no mediation in them, and there will be no punishment in their conscience, then they will find peace" (Vetter 1924: 322, 7-10).
If Utrecht manuscript reproduces this passage almost literally, the manuscript from Ghent admits some changes. As a result, the word consciencie appear in Ghent manuscript three times instead of two in Vienna manuscript:
Corin 1924: 322, 7-10 Ms. Utrecht4 Ms. Gent5
sy soilen sich halden, dat si die groiste sunder sin vnd si solen hain eyne groenende consciencie, die kompt vs oyuender luterheit; wan alle middel aue sint, dat geyn straiffen in der consciencien inist, so steyt sy zovreiden. Sij solen sich halden dat sij die groetste sonder sijn Ende si solen hebben eene gruenende consciencie die comet wt onbeulecter luterheit. Wanne alle middel af sijn dat geyne strauen inder consciencien en sy. Sy suelen hon houden voer die groefste sundaren die leuen Sy suelen hebben een ghesaette consciencie die coemt wt eenre onbeulecder luterheit Sich mynsche dan es die consciencie puer reyne edel luter ende onbeuelct wanneer dat alle dat myddel af es dat es als daer gheen scruuen en es inder consciencien Want dan soe staet sy gans te vreden.
The essential connection of conscience and the Eucharist is associated in Tauler's text with particular depth in the perception of the flesh and blood of Christ. This experience has at the same time spiritual and sensual nature. Thus, conscience becomes not just a kind of spiritual place for contemplatio et imitatio Christi, but also a place where the Passion of Christ and His sacrifice on the Cross are presented immediately as a living reality in the Eucharistic Sacrament. Therefore, it is not surprising to find in a sermon dedicated to some aspects of the sacrament of the Eucharist and also preserved in a Dutch version these highly enthusiastic words:
"Come into the stream flowing from the heart of our Lord Jesus Christ, flowing from the power of the Deity. His heart, nailed to the cross, was punctured with a sharp spear. In this stream you renew your spirit and clean your conscience, no matter how much it is polluted. Put on the bloody clothes dipped in the blood of the Lamb. Harden yourself in the power of the Divine. And so you prepare yourself for spiritual dying" (Ms. Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, No. V. E. 18, Cat. 1027, f. 136a, CXXXV; Lieftinck 1936: 355, 2029: "Ganck inden stroume de daer vlietet wten herten ons heren ihesu cristi ende wt vlietet wter cracht der gotheit Dat hert waert op gedaen op den myddaghemit eenen scerpen speer In desen stroume vernuwe dijnen geest ende reynighe dijne consciencie of sy beulect
4 Universiteitsbibliotheek, No. V. E. 18, Cat. 1027 (U.), f. 120b (CIXX); Lieftinck 1936: 269, 12-18
5 Universiteitsbibliotheek, No. 1330 (G. 2), f. 73b; Lieftinck 1936: 269, 1224
sy. Cleyde dich mitten bluede des lams. Sterck dich mitter cracht der gotheit, so bereydestu dy totten geestliken dode").
Summarizing the main characteristics of Tauler's understanding of the concept of conscience, we can say that, according to him, the following view is decisive: the action of conscience must be connected with the inner work in the soul, without any external action in order to prepare a human soul properly for the Eucharist. The central element of Tauler's understanding of conscience is the idea that it is a metaphysical and ontological category, and not a moral category par excellence. The important role of conscience on the way of a man to the God is determined by the fundamental bond between them: when a man moves away from the God, his conscience reminds him of it. The main context of using the word conscientia in the writings of John Tauler demonstrates its close conceptual relation to the thematic field of the Eucharist. It means that all deep spiritual and metaphysical notions of conscience as an incomprehensible activity of the foundation of the soul are connected to the practical purpose of the preacher - to prepare the congregation for the Communion.
References
DWB - Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm, 16 Bde. in 32 Teilbänden. Leipzig, 1854-1961; Quellenverzeichnis: Leipzig, 1971; Online-Version 23.11.2013. Gnädinger 1993 - Gnädinger L. Johannes Tauler: Lebenswelt und mystische Lehre. München: Beck, 1993. Haas 1971 - Haas A. M. Nim din selbes war. Studien zur Lehre von der Selbsterkenntnis bei Meister Eckhart, Johannes Tauler und Heinrich Seuse. Freiburg/Schweiz: Universitätsverlag, 1971 (Dokimion 3). Lieftinck 1936 - Lieftinck G.I. De middelnederlandsche Tauler-handschriften. Groningen: J.B. Wolters' Uitgevers-Maatschappii N.V., 1936. Ozment 1969 - Ozment S. E. Homo spiritualis. A Comparative Study of the Anthropology of Johannes Tauler, Jean Gerson and Martin Luther (1509-16) in the Context of Their Theological Thought. Leiden: Brill, 1969 (Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought 6). Störmer-Caysa 1998 - Störmer-Caysa U. Gewissen und Buch: Über den Weg eines Begriffes in die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters. Berlin, N.Y: de Gruyter, 1998 (Quellen und Forschungen zur Literatur- und Kulturgeschichte 18/248). Vetter 1910 - Die Predigten Taulers / hrsg. von Ferdinand Vetter, Berlin,
1910 (unveränderter Nachdruck: Dublin/Zürich, 1968). Corin 1924 - Sermons de J. Tauler et autres écrits mystiques / ed. Adolphe L. Corin. Vol. I. Liège: Vaillant-Carmanne, 1924.
Vogt-Terhorst 1920 - Vogt-Terhorst A. Der bildliche Ausdruck in den Predigten J. Taulers. Breslau, 1920 (Germanistische Abhandlungen, 51).
Weilner 1961 - Weilner I. Johannes Tauler Bekehrungsweg: Die Erfahrungsgrundlage seiner Mystik. Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 1961 (Studien zur Geschichte der katholischen Moraltheologie 10).
Willing 2004 - Willing A. Literatur und Ordensreform im 15. Jahrhundert. Deutsche Abendmahlsschriften im Nürnberger Katharinenkloster. Münster: Waxmann, 2004 (Studien und Texte zum Mittelalter und zur frühen Neuzeit 4).
M. L. Khorkov. The concept of conscience in the sermons of John Tauler and its Eucharistic context
The paper investigates context of the use of the term "conscience" in the sermons by John Tauler, showing its certain theoretical consistensy. It consists in the fact that the main context of the use of the term "conscience" in Tauler's writings is determined by the discourse on Eucharist. The central element of his understanding of conscience is therefore the intention to interpret it as a metaphysical and ontological, not as a prima facie moral category. Conscience is a form of human self-knowledge, as it is evident in the etymology of the German word gewissen and in the interpretations of the Latin term conscientia by the German authors of the Middle Ages. It also seems noteworthy for the history of the reception of Tauler's texts that the frequency of use of the word conscientia increases in the 15th century together with the Dutch translation of his sermons.
Key words: John Tauler, German medieval sermons, Tauler in the Netherlands.
