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THE BOOK IN THE LIFE OF AN ADULT IN THE POLISH PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
D. Zoladzh-Stzhelchik
K. Jakubiak W. Jamrozhek
In the history of the Polish printed word there have been several periods associated, on the one hand, with the history of culture and education, and on the other hand, with the political history of Poland. The turning point between the above mentioned factors was the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth’s loss of Independence that occurred at the end of the 18th century. The first period is the time of, so to speak, of primitive reflections on reading and the importance of the book in human life, which does not presuppose the absolute absence of reflections on this subject, but indicates their initial nature, which was specific and limited in various spheres.
In fact, the general availability of books and the growth of scientific speculations on the importance of the book are characteristic of the 19th and 20th centuries. Emphasis on importance of the book, of reading books in general can be observed in the works of writers of the nobility of that period. It is interesting that in the circles of the so-called people of school, that is mostly academic professors or professors of other Old Polish schools on the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and outstanding Old Polish writers (Modzhevsky), there can be found plenty of speculations on the importance of reading and the role of the book in human life. We can confidently say that it was something normal and obvious for the writers that an educated man, for whom they fought with the pen, must read; at the same time they believed that they should pay more attention to this issue. The importance of reading in adult life was, however, almost entirely neglected. In this context, there appears to be a very interesting phenomenon - the idea that an adult person should read and surround himself with books, that lays stress on the role of the book in different situations and with regards to different human needs, appears in the statements of the representatives of the middle nobility, in particular, Mikolaj Rej and James Casimir Haur. The former stated his point of view, which is of interest to us, in the work “The Life of the Noble Man”; and the latter is a typical representative of his age. In his work “Composition or Treasury of Magnificent Secrets of a Landlord’s Economy,” he shared his observations about books and the need to read them. Rej’s works are characterized by an instructive tone, full of advice to guide an ideal nobleman through his whole life (childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age). The second piece is a kind of encyclopedia for a landowner, containing on the one hand, advice on agriculture, as well as other relevant information - agricultural advice, medical advice, stories, quotes and morality, and on the other hand, tips on how a landlord’s ideal library should look.
For both of them, reading had a specific, measurable and utilitarian meaning. Mikolaj Rej in some aspects was concerned with the problem of reading
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books, with reference to the certain stages of the life of a nobleman. He, a noble man, should read from infancy. “Read philosophers, they are serious historians”, he instructed the young, and at the same time he warned against abusing: “In reading, like in any other activity, one should stay within reasonable limits and not force the nature.” 1 He recommended reading in adulthood, believing that “reading is a good thing” (adding “for those who can read”).2. The ability to read was a problem at that time. Historians believe that about 42% of the average nobility were able to make their signature and, possibly, could read, which was quite unmistakable at that time. In other groups of the nobility, the percentage ratio was as follows: impoverished nobility - 14%, rich nobility - 87%, and the highest level was observed, which is not surprising at all, among the nobility who held some posts in the courts (about 91%).3. So if a person can read, he shall do this as follows as per Rej: “It is considered a luxury to carve out some time to pore over books and learn about your rights and responsibilities.” Through books, you can effortlessly and inexpensively see the world “here, sitting on your chair, feeling as if you had been everywhere and seen everything.”4 Books can tell us a lot about the world around us. However, Rej warns against difficult and ambitious books: a noble man must read books that “propagate virtues and decent life,” and must draw from the literature “good examples of respected people, our ancestors and their worthy deeds.”5. In his turn, James Casimir Haur believes that life will be better and more pleasant if “there is some entertainment in the house.” It shall not be limited to hunting, quite popular among the nobility, horseback riding, carriage rides and walking; together with these “do not forget your library, where humor rests, where you can polish your memory and common sense in politics, as well as acquire skills that are useful for discussions, debates, and many other social activities”.6 Haur advises every family to have a library, and the model of this library is described in his work: it should contain specially selected works, and when “so is the need, you will not have to search for it everywhere,” when a person is willing to read, he can always turn to books in his library. The winter period suits best for reading (“during a long night, when you cannot sleep”), so does the fall when it rains, when it is dangerous to ramble swamps and water on the fields is tricky, when it is windy and stormy, when it is impossible to work or leave the house, then he writes, “it is better to sit at home in silence, and not look for ailments outside.” Haur notes that not only men should read, but also women, who often spend their time playing cards, receiving guests, gossiping and the like. They should also read preferably religious literature and “prayer books.”
In the following century, the era of great change, advice related to reading books can also be found in the works of Ignatius Krasicky’s, who introduced the model of an aristocratic library in his essay “Pan Podstolij.” He drew special
1 M. Rej, Zywot cziowieka poczciwego, Wroclaw, 1956, s. 62 (Н.Рей, Жизнь достойного человека).
2 M. Rej, s. 372.
3 A.Wyczanski, Szlachta polska Xvi wieku, Warszawa, 2011, s. 64 (А. Вышаньский, Полсьское дворянство XVI века).
4 M. Rej, s. 372.
5 J.w., s. 374.
6 J.K. Haur, Sktad albo skarbiec znakomitych sekretow ekonomii ziemiacskiej, Krakow, 1693, s. 165 (Я.К. Хаур, Состав или казна превосходных секретов помещичьей экономики).
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attention to the need for the introduction of romantic literature into the canon of reading, although the utilitarian virtues of some books, in his opinion, continued to be significant.1
In Poland, before it was divided, there existed along with relatively small libraries, large private collections of books (owned by scientists, clergy, nobles, commoners, county rulers and the like), as well as school libraries (Catholic -Krakow, Zamoyska, Vilna Academy, multiconfessional - Lutheran Gymnasium in King’s Prussia). A large collection of books belonged to the Polish rulers -Sigismund August had an especially rich collection. In the 18th century the Zatuskis’ library was created (1747) - the first Polish National Library with one of the largest collections of books in Europe (in 1774 it passed into the ownership of the state). The Commission of National Education, along with educational reforms conducted an important reform in the Polish librarianship. Libraries were established near schools, and the Commission confirmed the social nature of these collections and the need for their general accessibility. It was the first attempt to organize a network of libraries, which formed the basis of the modern librarianship.
The attitude to the role of books in the life of an adult changed during that period, and this is increasingly being referred to with the emphasis on the significance of literature. This was especially important under the Polish conditions after the fall of the 1st Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the loss of independence. In the 19th century literature changed the object of its social orientation - from the nobility to the common people, and became closer to the latter.2 Surely enough, Romanticism played an important role in this process; from the beginning it had bound books with the people and the problem of freedom. The literature of Romanticism and related philosophy (the so-called national philosophy) set a goal - the spiritual transformation of people through education, with the book as one of its means. Carl Libelt, associated with the era of Romanticism and the national philosophy of the end of the first half of the 19th century, in the second half of this century, in his dissertation “On love of the Homeland,” wrote that the unity of the people and the language was what they called literature. The people embodied its national unity in its writings and history. “National literature, presented in poetry and prose - wrote Carl Libelt - stands out from the public education”, writings are a kind of mirror for people.3
At the beginning and the first half of the 19th century the book acquired an important role in the ongoing process of the modernization of Polish society, as well as the modernization of the education of women. Clementine Gofmanova (nee Tanskaya) played a very important role in this area; she gave rise to the women's movement in the Polish lands and expanded the range of women's literature (which, as a matter of fact, was limited to foreign novels) with the help of books that
1 Tazbir J. Trzy wzorce ziemiacskiej biblioteki, w; tenze, Prace wybrane, t. 5 Szkice o literaturze i sztuce, Krakow 2002, s. 77-100 (Я. Тазбир, Три модели землевладельческой библиотеки).
2 tepkowski T. Polska - narodziny nowoczesnego narodu 1764-1870, Warszawa 1967, s. 486 (Т. Лепковский, Польша - рождение современного народа 1764-1870).
3 Libelt K. Pisma o oswiacie i wychowaniu, Wroclaw 1971, s. 337-343 (К.Либельт, Письмена о просвещении и воспитании).
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served the purpose of intellectual education of women.1 In the 19th century on the Polish territory we can observe the process of expanding the circle of recipients of literature, especially books. Naturally, this process inhibited the phenomenon of illiteracy, though clearly retreating still present in wide circles of Polish society, especially in the villages of the Russian and Austrian regions. Illiteracy was a major barrier to the spread of books and reading, though not so essential to abandon it completely. Awareness of the need to bring the book to whoever it was possible, including peasants and workers, grew in influential Polish circles, especially in the last decades of the 19th century. There appeared numerous enlightenment organizations that established libraries and reading rooms available for everyone.2 Among the mass of associations some strong organizations spurted into the lead, “Branch of the Reading Room of the Warsaw’s Charity Society" (from 1861), “Society of People's Reading Rooms,” functioning on the territory of the Prussian region (1880), “Society of Public School” functioning on the territory of the Austrian region (с 1891 г.)3. To kill the interest in educational libraries among the Polish population, the government administration of the country’s invaders resorted to establishing libraries with collections of books in foreign languages (German and Russian), or mixed. For example, in the Prussian annexation, at the end of the first decade of the 20th century there were over 700 German public libraries.4
It should be noted that, in the Russian annexation, where a lack of education was higher and Polish libraries were few, the creators of such libraries faced enormous resistance on the side of representatives of the Russian government. There, over time, in a situation where there was a total absence of Polish schools, self-education developed more and more (more or less legally). The support of publishers and numerous publications contributed to this development. The most important work of that time was, published in Warsaw in 1898, the “Guidebook for Self Learners”, the main initiator and editor of which was Stanislaw Michalski. Of great importance for development of self-education (at the elementary level) were primers by Conrad Prushinskiy (pseudonym Casimir Promyk), published by the general circulation since 1875. The expansion of the circle of book consumers among certain parts of the adult population was greatly influenced by a large number of public and political groups in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which proclaimed the socio-cultural and political emancipation of different social groups, previously marginalized, in cities and villages. This public (especially related to the socialist and peasant movements of the time) entered the path leading to their full civil equality and the socio-cultural empowerment of their possibilities. The book
1 Jamrozek Zob. W. Problemy awansu spoteczno - kulturalnego i edukacyjnego kobiet w programach ruchu kobiecego na ziemiach polskich w IX i pocz^tkach XX wieku, W: D. Zot^dz - Strzelczyk, W. Jamrozek, Studia z dziejow edukacji kobiet na ziemiach polskich, Poznan 2001, s.128-129 (См. В. Ямрожек, Проблемы социально-культурного и образовательного аванса женщин в программе женского движения на польских землях в IX и начале ХХ века).
2 Wroblewski J. Polskie biblioteki ludowe w zaborze pruskim i na terenie Rzeszy Niemieckiej w latach 1843-1939, Olsztyn 1975; J. Krajewska, Czytelnictwo wsrod robotnikow w Krolestwie Polskim 1870 -1914, Warszawa 1979 (Я. Вриблевский, Польские народные библиотеки в прусской аннексии и на территории Рейха в годах 1843-1939).
3 Maleczynska Zob. K. Ksi^zki i biblioteki w Polsce okresu zaborow, Wroctaw 1987, s. 170 (См. К. Малечиньска, Книги и библиотеки в Польше во время разделов).
4 Maleczynska K., op. cit., s. 159.
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was supposed to play an important role in this process. The leaders and animators of the emancipation process repeatedly expressed the opinion that even “a small set of books thrown in a corner, is stored in deep sheltered brain “storerooms”, which will be of great benefit and awake the spiritual life, open new horizons, and light smoldering sparks.”1
In the Polish democratic educational circles of that period it was believed that one of the manifestations of the democratization of knowledge and culture was the degree of availability of books and the printed word to the public. Therefore, there appeared a desire to increase the network of available public libraries and reading rooms. Development of so-called “libraries on wheels” was also promoted, as they were meant to popularize reading in remote locations far from centers of science and culture. Some partnerships and political communities also created libraries and reading rooms. Libraries and reading rooms were also established in workers' organizations, agricultural circles, etc. In those days, it was already noted that functioning of libraries and reading rooms was not only affected by the quantity and quality of books, but also by the role of the librarian. One of the leaders of the Polish Social-Democratic Party of the time, Boleslaw Drobner wrote: “It is not enough to publish a book, register it etc., you need to be a guide, a “self-learner’s manual”. You should take into consideration the age, occupation, and mood of the reader; you need to detect his preferences. The librarian should be a subtle examiner, who must often impose a book to a person if the book itself does not attract the reader by its title or character.”2
According to the Polish leaders of enlightenment, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the book was supposed to play an important role in life of an adult, in his further education, and more likely his self-education. It was emphasized that education was not only limited to school; besides school, which during the occupation had many shortcomings, did not always served the interests of the Polish people, as being on the majority of Polish lands was a factor in their Germanization or Russification. In this period the possibility of education and selfeducation for an adult (with no regard to a particular segment of the population) manifested itself more and more markedly. Such views were represented by Elena Radlinska, quite well known in the extracurricular environment and general public and political life of the Polish people (during the annexation of Austria), a brilliant propagandist of reading among adults, as well as the development of a network of libraries and reading rooms in the Polish lands. She presented her point of view at a session of the 2nd Polish Pedagogical Congress in Lviv in 1909. Radlinska also raised problems connected with the development of reading and library networks after Poland regained independence in the period between the two world wars. At that time it was one of the most important areas of her theoretical and practical research. The book, in her opinion, should be an important tool for education among young people and adults, “help with independent work,” facilitate
1 H.O. (H. Radlinska), Ze spraw oswiatowych, „Krytyka” 1909, t. I, z. 6, s. 375-376 (Х. Радлинска, Из вопросов образования, "Критика").
2 B. Drobner, Wazny dziat naszej pracy, „Kalendarz Robotniczy” 1914, s. 56-57 (Б. Дробнер, Важный раздел нашей работы, "Трудовой календарь").
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“participation in creative work of masses, to promote peace.” An active promoter of enlightenment and at the same a theorist of the Polish pedagogy, who noticed backwardness in education and culture of the Polish Republic (1918-1939), especially in the rural area, draws our attention to the fact that the book and the printed word can be a significant factor in overcoming the social and cultural isolation of rural residents, thus, they can diversify their social and cultural life.1 2 The concept of Radlinska was quite clear to many members of the younger generation of Polish villages. For them the book, the printed word and reading connected with them, and had to be an alternative to the previous ways of spending leisure time, so as to use it not only to recuperate after work, but also for understanding the new cultural values. It was also suggested that the hostility to the book, which was observed in some of the villages, was an echo of the past, the result of traditional views on how to spend your free time. In the columns of the magazine “Seeding”, connected with this part of the rural youth, it was written: “The reason for our aversion to books is the dependence, inherited from our bond grandfathers, who spent the little free time they had in taverns, or on useless chatting”.3 Young village leaders insisted on the development of free public libraries, held by public funds. In the villages, there may have been a few libraries, but they were very “miserable” for the most part in terms of selection of books. According to the figures as of 1929, there were only 18.5% of libraries that everyone had access to, as well as libraries with the so-called restricted access (partnerships, and various organizations) in the villages. At that time in villages there was 1 book per every 24 people.4
It should be noted that in Poland in between the wars, there were a number of ways of popularizing books among the young people and adults. For example, among the rural youth it was popular to organize competitions to find out the best reader. Radlinska, while assessing them, especially noted their team character and socio-educational effect: “The book encourages the participants to think, talk, and share the experience of new sensations. The book introduces us to the wider world beyond our understanding and our interests ... While discussing books that are represented at the competition readers can learn from each other ....”5 One of the forms of popularization of reading promoted among the peasant youth was the so-called joint reading, which was held for the most part in winter evenings.
Today, the book plays an important role in life of an adult, and nothing can replace it. However it should be noted that in the past the importance of books and reading for the development of an individual and the society were also appreciated.
1 H. Radlinska, Oswiata i kultura wsi polskiej. Wybor pism, oprac. H.Brodowska i L.Wojtczak, Warszawa 1979, s. 175, 179 (Х. Радлинска, Просвещение и культура польской деревни).
2 Ibid, p. 257.
3 W. Jamrozek, Teoretyczne i organizacyjno - programowe zatozenia oswiaty pozaszkolnej w wersji ludowcow Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej, w: J. Hellwig, W.Jamrozek, D. Zot^dz, Z prac poznanskich historykow wychowania, Poznan 1994, s. 73 (В. Ямрожек, Теоретические и организационнопрограммные предпосылки внешкольного просвещения по версии народного движения Второй Речи Посполитой).
4 Ibid, p. 74.
5 H. Radlinska, op. cit., s. 259-260.
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