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Section 3. History and archaeology
Section 3. History and archaeology
Gladkaya Elena Anatolyevna, Southern Federal University, Associate Professor, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Institute of History and International Relations E-mail: elena_gladkaja@ rambler.ru
Voloshina Ekaterina Evgenyevna, Southern Federal University, Associate Professor, Candidate of Historical Sciences Institute of History and International Relations E-mail: katerina_voloshina@ bk.ru
The beginning of British Colonization of India. Lord Robert Clive
Abstract: The assessment of the history of British colonization is ambiguous. There were a lot of negative aspects, but there were also many positive ones. The historical process should be seen through the prism of individual participation in it. The colonization of India is difficult to imagine without the personality of Robert Clive. The glory of a colonizer of such scale is also quite controversial. The article attempts to analyze the role of an individual in quite an ambiguous process such as colonization.
Keywords: colonization, England, India, Lord Clive, Bengal.
The Europeans repeatedly interfered in the history of colonization of India. The English disrupted the balance of relations partially; herewith, it affected the condition of traditional Indian structure in the whole. Though, the traditional forms were replaced by new relations. India became actively involved in the world market and international trade relations. The English built railways, established regular postal service, opened industrial enterprises, created a colonial bureaucratic administration that was quite different from the one existing before. Nevertheless, this painful process contributed to the development of the country, introduced India to new forms of relations, machine production and basics of science and technology. The English, and especially English language, started serving as an integrating beginning that helped unite the country speaking different languages into something whole and integrated.
The history of British colonization of India is difficult to imagine without the personality of Robert Clive. The glory of a colonizer of such scale is also quite controversial.
The name Clive sounds quite ominous for most Indians. But, at the same time, despite the official condemnation, for the English, Clive is a hero who made a considerable contribution to the establishment and evolution of the powerful British Empire, which is confirmed by a Robert Clive monument erected in Whitehall, London, in front of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
In the Soviet historiography, the name of Robert Clive is, as a rule, associated with a tough colonial policy carried out by
England in India. Clive was portrayed as the personification of this policy, whereas not more than few pages were dedicated to Clive himself tinged with negativity, as was indicated above.
While any Indian history lover will find detailed and interesting information about other famous colonizers such as the French Dupleix, Bussy, Lally-Tollendal and some others, they will hardly find anything about the man who laid the foundation of the English rule in India. Having gone down in the history of England, India and France, for many Robert Clive remains a person with a rather mysterious fate.
Robert Clive was born at an ancient English family estate, near Market Drayton in Shropshire, on 29 September 1725 to a lawyer Richard Clive and Lady Gaskell. According to one of the Clive biographers: «... already at an early age, he showed strong will and wild passion combined with inborn shyness» [5, 23]. Apparently, such set of qualities made the character of Robert Clive difficult for people around. He didn’t get on well with relatives. When Robert turned 18, his parents sent him to India to serve in the East Indian Company. He was sent to the other end of the world with only a recommendation letter. However, it can be assumed that not only the difficult character of the young man was a reason for such quick separation, but also a bad financial condition of the family. Paying respect to Clive, when he became a very rich man, he supported all relatives financially.
In 1743 Robert Clive left the motherland for the first time and headed for Madras. The travel was long (he found himself in Brazil where he had to spend several months); it took
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The beginning of British Colonization of India. Lord Robert Clive
him more than a year to reach India. By that time, he ran out of money given to him for the trip. The man, who the recommendation letters were referred to, died. Pride didn’t allow Robert to ask for anything from unfamiliar people.
Winding up in a different continent, unfamiliar and unusual environment, the young man didn’t even try to establish relations with his compatriots. The only place where Clive’s soul found peace was the governor’s wonderful library, where he spent long hours. When Clive got a position of a small clerk, he almost lost it because of his temper.
The service didn’t satisfy Clive. Probably, it was the hardest time in his life. Desperation reached a certain limit and he tried to commit suicide. He attempted to shoot himself twice but it misfired both times. It’s a fate. It is unknown how things would have turned if there had been a third attempt. Incidentally, it took place after nineteen years.
In the middle ofXVIII century, the most powerful East Indian Companies were British and French. Their rivalry led to an armed conflict.
Unlike the French Company, the British Company already had strength and riches largely due to the fact that it was «regulated». It had a large army of employees, profitable trading stations, own fleet and troops. Being interested in its activity, the English government gave it a global-scale support.
Famous J. F. Dupleix was the head of the French colonial forces in India, who occupied the position of the governor of Pondicherry. Understanding that the English became the main rival of France, he was eager to expel them from India. Being a talented organizer, Dupleix created a small troop that consisted of Indians and was taught in European manner. This small army of sepoys that was under the command of the French officers was quite combat-capable.
In the 40s of XVIII century, England and France began a war for the Austrian inheritance in Europe. The echo of these events came to India by 1746. The first English-French trade war started. Dupleix put his sepoys on the squadron that arrived in Pondicherry and was under the command of B. F. Labourdonnais. Soon, they disembarked in the center of the English dominions in India and seized Madras quite easily. The English had only one dominion left — Fort St. David (southwards from Pondicherry), where Clive ran away to with his compatriots from the French.
The attempts of the English to seize Pondicherry were not successful. Nevertheless, the first English-French trade war ended with the victory of France. According to the Treaty of Aachen of 1748, France returned Madras to England in return to the concessions in Europe (Dupleix insisted on the destruction of Madras, but the French authorities sitting far away in Europe didn’t take his opinion into account). At the same time, Dupleix wanted to use the victory at maximum. Skillfully «playing» the disputes between the rulers of Hyderabad and Carnatic, he put his henchmen on the thrones, which gave him power over the entire south of India.
The English couldn’t put up with such situation. They interfered in the dynasty struggle in the south of India helping
the rivals of the French representatives. The war between South Indian rulers led to the second English-French war, which started in 1750.
These events changed the life of Robert Clive completely...
The war was much more attractive for Robert Clive than civil service. The former clerk turned out to be quite a capable military man, who possessed not only commanding but also brilliant organizational talents.
Initially, the French and their appointees acted rather successfully in the new war, having captured the entire Carnatic (a region in the south of India). A year after the beginning of the war, the English only had the fort of Trichinopoly in their hands, which the French were preparing to capture together with the army of their appointee Chanda Sahib.
In these conditions critical for the English, in order to distract the forces of Chanda Sahib and the French from Trichinopoly, a small troop of the English led by young captain Robert Clive took Arcot (a center in the south of India) by storm unexpectedly for the enemy and held it for 53 days in spite of all efforts by the Indian troops. The heroic protection of Arcot destroyed all plans of Dupleix. And, in the future, all his attempts to seize Trichinopoly and return the dominancy of the French in Carnatic failed.
The siege of Arcot made the name of Clive popular. But the quickly begun career of a military man and the glory of a hero could be lost as easily as it came. Clive was forced to come back to England due to his disease.
In the meantime, the struggle between England and France over the dominancy in India continued. The peace treaty signed in 1754 recognized Muhammad Ali, an appointee of the English, as the Nawab of the Carnatic; moreover, the French lost a few territories.
Conquering Bengal, the English were forced to fight not only with the French but the very Bengali troops. In 1756, young Siraj ud-Daulah became the Nawab of Bengal. As it was mentioned earlier, the English tried to use the disagreements between the princes of India and supported the opponent of Siraj ud-Daulah. As a result, the troops of the young Nawab captured Calcutta that belonged to the English. Thus, the plans of the English to gain possession of Bengal were put under serious threat; their dominancy could be crushed in the bud [2, 28]. A corps was levied on short notice, which mobilized all troops positioned in Madras. Robert Clive, who recently returned from England, was given the command of the corps. Madras heads understood well that the English didn’t lose six years ago primarily due to Clive. Clive lived up to all expectations and Calcutta was seized.
After his comeback, Clive no longer looked like an unhappy young man who came to India ten years ago. Now it was a confident 30 year old man, who was popular among troops, had the glory of a winner that was growing with every passing year. The authorities trusted him more and more.
In same 1756, England and France were in the state of war. The Seven years’ War started. The battlefields were not only in Europe, but also in America and India, where the news
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Section 3. History and archaeology
about war reached in 1757. By that time, the French were not ready for the war in India. They didn’t have enough means and the government of France didn’t hurry to help. England, on the contrary, was quite determined. Her moods were brightly manifested in the activity of the chief commander of the English troops Robert Clive.
Clive started secret negotiations with a Siraj ud-Daulah’s commander Mir Jafar, as a result of which a secret agreement was concluded under which Mir Jafar promised to help the English in the final battle. In return, the English promised the throne of the Nawab of Bengal in case of victory.
Clive felt as confident in behind the scene maneuvers as in the battlefields. They found Mir Jafar due to some Amichand, an Indian and a former big trade agent of the East Indian Company. He demanded that the payment for his cooperation was stipulated in the text of the above mentioned secret agreement. Clive deceived Amichand by concluding a false agreement the signatures in which were forged. The name of Amichand was not mentioned in the real agreement, although, the obligations of Mir Jafar towards the English were described in detail: after becoming the Nawab, he was supposed to expel the French from Bengal and recognize the authority of the English over himself. Furthermore, «in order to compensate the losses incurred in relation to the capture of Calcutta by the Nawab’s army», Mir Jafar was obliged to pay an enormous amount to the English — 17,7 million pounds sterling [3, 24].
Thus, according to a just notice of many historians, a careful preparation for the final battle with Siraj ud-Daulah determined its result.
The secret agreement with Mir Jafar largely explains the fact that, on the first face, the recklessness of Clive forced him to confront the large army ofthe Nawab onJune 23, 1757 consisting of 18 thousand horsemen and 50 thousand infantry with a troop of 3 thousand soldiers in the Battle of Plas-sey [1, 88]. Not only confront, but also win. Mir Jafar who was leading the main forces of Siraj ud-Daulah didn’t allow them acting, and thus, ensured the full defeat of the Nawab’s army.
In many works dedicated to the history of English conquest of India, the day of the Battle of Plassey is considered the date of establishment of the British dominancy in India. Indeed, the significance of this victory for the English is difficult to overestimate, because they gained a province, the resources of which were used by them in the course of further fight for India.
Success was primarily achieved due to Robert Clive, who, multiplying the riches of England with his victories, didn’t forget about himself. Hence, apart from the vast amount of money received from the new Nawab of Bengal Mir Jafar (in compliance with the agreement), the English received big amounts from him in the form of gifts. Clive got two and a half million rupees in cash and also occupied a rich estate that brought a big annual income. To give him credit, Clive was not an exception. Many English and French colonizers behaved similarly. Apparently, Clive didn’t think that he was criminally using his position for his own profit.
After the Plassey victory, Clive added the glory of a determined governor (he became the governor of Bengal) to the glory of a vigorous warlord and lucky colonizer.
In 1763 the new Nawab of Bengal Mir Qasim rose in rebellion against the English, which soon gained a wide antiEnglish character and put the English in a rather difficult condition. Clive was in England at that time.
In 1764 the English troops defeated the rebels. Now, the task was to strengthen their territorial possessions. Moreover, it was necessary to bring discipline in the Company itself, the employees of which sank into the mire of abuses, racket and bribes. Robert Clive, who returned to India in 1765, was tasked to solve these problems and was again appointed the governor of Bengal. With his inherent energy, Clive undertook resolute measures: the employees of the company were not allowed participating in private trade; simultaneously it was presupposed to increase the salaries of the officials at the expense of profits from the state monopoly on salt, opium and saltpeter. The prices on salt were not augmented. Finally, Clive introduced a so-called system of double government, in accordance with which the civil matters were under the supervision of local authorities and the collection of taxes and financial matters were transferred to the Company.
Clive left India for good in 1767. He left being a man whose name was forever associated with the first considerable successes of the English in India, which laid the foundation of the English dominancy in India for many decades.
Upon the return to London, Clive was not a hero basking in his glory, but a convict. The English Parliament accused Clive of abuses committed by him in India.
In 1773 Clive came before the commission of the House of Commons accusing him of embezzlement of a part of riches won by the English. After Clive, his successor at the position of the general governor Warren Hastings went before the Parliament, who was also accused of corrupt practices. In response to the accusations, Clive, who stayed clear, claimed that he behaved humbly in India and was surprised at it himself, because he could take possession of the entire treasury of the Nawab of Bengal, which the English gained mainly to his, Clive’s, valor. Eventually, considering that «Lord Clive rendered significant and praiseful services to his country», the Commission acquitted him [5, 31].
In spite of his rehabilitation, Clive slipped into a heavy spiritual crisis after the parliamentary accusations, which he was not able to overcome. Robert Clive committed suicide on November 22, 1774.
J. Malcolm was one of the prominent specialists on «Clive», who considered the English colonization of India and means of its conduct very negative. He wrote in his book «The Life of Robert, Lord Clive»: «... Clive and Warren Hastings, great people in the eyes of future generations, seemed just lucky ones and adventurers to the contemporaries. They couldn’t forgive them that they had gone to India being poor and returned burdened with treasures that were exaggerated to absurdity by envy and feud.
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Economical problems in the cities of Fergana valley (in the example of 1917-1924s)
In the consequence of horrible circumstances and public disgrace that the conquerors and first rulers of India were subject to, the victories and conquests lost their brilliance; they were looked at unjustly and shortsightedly. Clive and Hastings were in the position similar to the position of Caesar, William of Orange and Napoleon. Their behavior was looked at from the point of ordinary people... Same rules applied to the deeds of ordinary people were applied to their actions,
which decided the fate of millions of people, appointed and threw down the rulers and established the whole Empire. It is similar to the summons of Caesar, Cromwell and William of Orange to the commercial court or the court of correctional police.» [4, 46].
One can agree or disagree with the above stated opinion, but we reckon that law is for everyone. And the English law gave its definition towards the first general governors of India.
References:
1. Antonova K. A. English conquest of India in XVIII. - Moscow: Publishers of the eastern literature, 1958. - 324 p.
2. Bart de Panoen. India under the British rule. - М.,1848.
3. Lord Clive. A latter to proprietors of the East India stock. - L., 1794.
4. Malcolm J. The Life of Robert, Lord Clive. 3 vols. - L., 1836.
5. Macaulay T. B. Lord Clive. - M., 1852.
Mansurov Ulugbek Umarovich, Senior teacher at Namangan state university, Uzbekistan E-mail: [email protected]
Economical problems in the cities of Fergana valley (in the example of 1917-1924s)
Abstract: In this article informed about the economic regression occurred in the cities of Fergana valley and its results.
Keywords: The cities of Fergana valey, Oktober revolution, economic crisis, the Soviet government, hungriness, the press, the problem of food, new economiy policy.
In the result of the economical events carried out by setting the Soviet government in Turkistan the economical situation in Fergana valley got worse. In the consequence of the decline in the agriculture of Russia in 1917 and the drop in productivity delivering grains to the region dramatically reduced. Especially, in the previous years before the October revolution from 14 million pood to 20 million pood (pood is a unit of measure equal to 16 kg.) grain was brought into Turk-istan every year, but in 1918-1919’s with great difficulties less than 1,5 million pood grain was brought, only [1, 104].
While 52 million pood grain harvest was gathered in 1917 throughout Turkistan, the demand of the region for the grain was 110 million pood at that time [2, 102]. In the result of the economical crisis in the region the rural working people’s interest towards growing cotton decreased, and it also caused dramatically reduction of agricultural fields. Also, devastation didn’t go around the industry of the region. In the cotton ginning industry, which was a leading branch of the industry, the volume of manufacturing reduced more than twice in 1917 than in 1915 [3, 514-517]. Because of the general crisis in the economy in the result of World War I began in 1914 the future harvest was lost because of stopping bringing in the grains from abroad and the severe cold in the winter of1916-1917, and the droughts in the summer of1917. The decline in the field of cotton growing brought to increase the number of the unemployed in the cities of Fergana valley.
According to the information, in 1917 in Fergana there were about 400 thousand unemployed sharecroppers (which uses the landowner’s animals and equipment in exchange for 1/4 of the crop), 300 thousand landless cotton-growers and 50 thousand factory workers [4]. In 1918 in Fergana 1,5 million people met 800 thousand dessiatina (measure of land = 10,900 sq. metres or 2.7 acres) land, that is, it coincided with half dessiatina land each person [5]. In such condition the farmers and urban people who dispossessed their living devices filled the rank of the strugglers for freedom against the Soviet government.
In 1917 in Fergana the areas of cotton fields dropped from 248,325 dessiatina to 70,000 dessiatina in 1918, and to 33,000 dessiatina in 1921. The number of livestock animals was 1,565,414 in 1917, and in 1921 it was 146,336 [6, 225].
In 1916 the average price of one pood of wheat was equal to 1 ruble 50 kopeck, and as a result of the starvation in the region the price of most food products increased. In 1917 a pood of wheat was valued at 35 rubles, a pood of flour was valued at from 2 to 40 rubles, and a pood ofrice was valued at from 5 to 45 rubles, and a pood of corn was valued at from 1 to 25 rubles [7]. People’s earnings were not enough to buy food. In the decision of the general meeting of Margilan workers it was noted as “a poor who earned 4 rubles per week even couldn’t feed oneself. Those, who can afford, can buy the flour. Such people comprise 10 thousand of 125 thousand population ofMargilan. In a week a worker could work to be able to buy flour enough
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