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DOI: 10.37399/2686-9241.2021.2.139-153
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The Abuse of Underage Athletes
Ekaterina N. Rakhmanova
North-West Branch, Russian State University of Justice, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
For correspondence: ekaterina.rachmanova@gmail.com
Introduction. Millions of children are ill-treated every day at home, at school, on the streets, and in sports. While sport is believed to promote health and help children to develop important social skills, its importance is often overestimated. In sports culture, violence is often taken for granted. This is an integral part of the cruel treatment of children in sports. Further, the closed nature of sports can only partially explain why both foreign and domestic experts still pay so little attention to the abuse of young athletes.
Theoretical Basis. Methods. This research has been based on general scientific methods (such as analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, and the system analysis method) and methods of legal science (including methods of comparative jurisprudence, methods of literal, systematic and historical interpretation of legal norms). The theoretical basis of the thesis was the scientific papers of Russian and foreign experts in the field of criminal law, criminology, sociology, psychology and sports law.
Results. A study of data on child abuse in sports, including scientific papers, data and recommendations provided by international organisations, shows that a common understanding of the term has not yet been developed nor have the specifics of "child abuse in sports" been determined. Analysis of the currently available documents developed by international organisations, shows that most of the recommendations are superficial and vague. Certain types of illtreatment, such as sexual abuse by peer or exploitation of the labour of child athletes are not covered in detail.
Discussion and Conclusion. Considering the results of the studies of laws and regulations conducted in several foreign countries by international organisations, the authors have concluded that regardless of whether cruel treatment of children is a sporting tradition, no cruelty towards them can be justified; violence and exploitation of children athletes need to be prevented.
Keywords: sports, a minor, abuse, violence, exploitation, doping, labour of minor athletes
Acknowledgements. The study was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research within the framework of project 20-011-00414 A "Criminal law and criminological problems of combating crime in the field of sports".
For citation: Rakhmanova, E. N., 2021. The abuse of underage athletes. Pravosudie/Justice, 3(2), pp. 139-153. DOI: 10.37399/2686-9241.2021.2.139-153.
Abstract
© PaxMaHOBa E. H., 2021
Жестокое обращение с несовершеннолетними спортсменами
Е. Н. Рахманова
Северо-Западный филиал, ФГБОУВО «Российский государственный университет правосудия», г. Санкт-Петербург, Российская Федерация ekaterina.rachmanova@gmail.com
Аннотация
Введение. Миллионы детей ежедневно подвергаются жестокому обращению дома, в школе, на улице, в спорте. Считается, что спорт способствует укреплению здоровья, помогает детям развивать важные социальные навыки, но его значение для их развития зачастую переоценивается. Восприятие насилия, неотъемлемой составляющей жестокого обращения с детьми в спорте, как нормы в рамках спортивной культуры, закрытость спорта могут только отчасти объяснить, почему до сих пор на жестокое обращение с детьми-спортсменами обращается так мало внимания как зарубежными, так и отечественными специалистами. Теоретические основы. Методы. Исследование основывалось на общенаучных методах (анализ и синтез, индукция и дедукция, метод системного анализа) и методах юридической науки (методы сравнительного правоведения, методы буквального, систематического и исторического толкования правовых норм). Теоретической основой работы послужили труды российских и зарубежных специалистов в области уголовного права, криминологии, социологии, психологии и спортивного права.
Результаты исследования. Изучение данных о жестоком обращении с детьми в спорте, научных работ, материалов международных организаций и их рекомендаций показывает, что до сих пор не выработано единое понимание термина и не определена специфика «жестокого обращения с детьми в спорте». Анализ имеющихся сегодня документов, разработанных международными организациями, свидетельствует, что большинство рекомендаций сформулированы в общей форме и нечетко. Некоторые виды жестокого обращения, такие как, например, сексуальное насилие со стороны сверстников, эксплуатация труда детей-спортсменов, подробно не рассматриваются.
Обсуждение и результаты. С учетом результатов анализа исследований, проведенных в ряде зарубежных стран и международными организациями, нормативных правовых актов делается вывод, что независимо от того, являются ли формы жестокого обращения с детьми спортивной традицией, никакая жестокость с ними не может быть оправдана, насилие и эксплуатацию детей-спортсменов необходимо предотвратить.
Ключевые слова: спорт, несовершеннолетний, жестокое обращение, насилие, эксплуатация, допинг, труд несовершеннолетних спортсменов
Благодарности. Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке РФФИ в рамках проекта 20-011-00414 А «Уголовно-правовые и криминологические проблемы противодействия преступности в сфере спорта».
Для цитирования: Рахманова Е. Н. Жестокое обращение с несовершеннолетними спортсменами // Правосудие/Justice. 2021. Т. 3, № 2. С. 139-153. DOI: 10.37399/26869241.2021.2.139-153.
Introduction
S port is an integral part of culture and an area of social activity of society. It is necessary for the development of children, has a positive effect on both their physical and social development.
But in recent years, the topic of child protection in sports has attracted the attention of the international community, which has had to admit that chil-
dren who play sports are at risk of abuse [Brackenridge, C. H. and Rhind, D., 2010] and need special protection1.
In this regard, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) has issued several special Consensus Statements: "Preparing Elite Child Athletes"2, "Age determination" [Engebretsen, L., Steffen, K., Bahr, R., et al., 2010], "Health and fitness of young people through physical activity and sports"3, Youth Sports Development [Bergeron, M. F., Mountjoy, M., Armstrong, N., et al, 2015], Sexual Harassment and Violence in Sports [Mountjoy, M., Brackenridge, C., Ar-rington, M., et al., 2016].
In March 2019, at the forty-third session of the UN Human Rights Council, the Report of the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children and the sexual exploitation of children, including child prostitution, child pornography and the production of other materials on sexual abuse of children, was heard, in which, inter alia, attention is also paid to the problems of treating children in sports4.
At the same time, there is little research on this topic. There are practically no domestic works devoted to child abuse in sports [Atarbekova, A. A., 2018a; Atarbekova, A. A., 2018b].
Theoretical Basis. Methods
The aim of this study is the problem of child abuse in sports, which deserves special study. To achieve this goal, it is planned to address the following tasks: to consider the types of child abuse in sports, and to formulate some proposals for solving this problem.
Sport is a systematic training associated with certain sacrifices and efforts, both physical and psychological. This fully applies to young athletes. Today it is the norm to train children, sometimes from the age of four. Focusing on sports achievements, coaches, sports schools and parents can ignore the
International guarantees for the protection of children in sports. URL: https://www. sportanddev.org/sites/default/files/media/russian_-_safeguarding_children_in_ sport.pdf
IOC Consensus Statement on Training the Elite Child Athlete. URL: https://stillmedab.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/Olympi-c0rg/News/20051411-Consensus-Statement-Adopted-0n-Training-The-Elite-Child-Athlete/EN-Training-the-Elite-Child-Athlete-report- 1016.pdf#_ ga=2.109143365.1323572861.1610803413-950056558.1610189516
Consensus statement on the health and fitness of young people through physical activity and sport Lausanne, January 2011. URL: https://stillmed.olympic.org/ media/Document%20Library/ OlympicOrg/ IOC/Who-We-Are/Commissions/Medi-cal-and-Scientific-Commission/EN-IOC-Consensus-Statement-on-the-Health-and-Fitness-of-Young-People-Through-Physical-Activity.pdf
Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children, Including Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and Other Materials on Sexual Abuse of Children: Report of the Special Rapporteur to the 40th Session on Human Rights of the United Nations. February 25 - March 22, 2019. URL: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/ G18/446/95/PDF/G1844695.pdf?OpenElement
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needs of children in terms of their physical, educational, psychological and social development [Rogaleva, L. N., Khaerzamanova, Yu. V., Malkin, V. R. and Bogdanova, M. V., 2018]. Coaches and parents are often not so much concerned about what benefits children can benefit from playing sports, but what benefits children playing sports can bring them.
Speaking about child abuse, some experts believe that "we are talking about a generalised concept that includes both physical and mental violence" [Avde-eva, L. A., 2009, p. 110; Kartavchenko, B. B., 2008, p. 66]. Yu. E. Pudovoch-kin suggests replacing the concept of "cruel treatment" with the concept of "violence" [Pudovochkin, Yu. E., 2002, p. 187].
Results
In our opinion, the most accurate definition of the WHO should be recognised: "Child abuse or maltreatment is all forms of physical and/or emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, neglect, trafficking or other forms of exploitation that can lead or lead to actual harm to the child's health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power"5.
Exploitation of Underage Athletes
Sports training and child labour have much in common. The International Labour Organisation defines child labour as work "that deprives them of their childhood, their potential, their dignity and harms their physical and mental development"6.
This fully applies to child athletes despite the fact that in 2008 the Labour Code of the Russian Federation was supplemented by Ch. 54.1 "Features of the regulation of the work of athletes and coaches"7. Despite the provision of special guarantees for child athletes [Alekseev, S. V., 2016], sports clubs nowadays prefer a civil contract, thereby evading the obligation to comply with labour legislation.
Children, especially those involved in sports on a professional basis, train like adult athletes; parents, coaches, agents depend on the success of their children in terms of their own employment and income in the hope of future prize money [Donnelly, P. and Petherick, L., 2004, p. 311]. The system of intensive training and games several times a week and several hours a day can hardly be considered as "light work" that does not harm the health of a minor [Buyanova, M. O., 2018, p. 242].
Consultation on Child Abuse Prevention (11999: Geneva, Switzerland), World Health Organization. Violence and Injury Prevention Team & Global Forum for Health Research (1999). Report of the Consultation on Child Abuse Prevention, 29-31 March 1999, WHO, Geneva. World Health Organization. URL: https://apps.who.int/iris/ handle/10665/65900
What is child labour. URL: https://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang--en/index.htm
Federal Law of February 28, 2008 No. 13-FZ "On Amendments to the Labor Code of the Russian Federation" // Rossiyskaya Gazeta. 2008. 5 March.
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In other words, it must be recognised that children involved in sports on a permanent (professional) basis are performing work that by its nature may harm the health and safety of children, in other words, they are doing "dangerous work".
Finally, we must not forget about the practice of transferring children from club to club (transfers), which is essentially a form of selling them for the purpose of forced labour. Transfers are always accompanied by monetary compensation, i. e. payment for the athlete. The legal regulation of this process, as well as the identification of cases of transfers of minors, is complicated by the specifics of sports management, specifically the closed nature of sports organizations. "Almost all the rules governing transfers of minors are concentrated in the acts of sports federations, there is practically no special federal legislation. The reason for this is a specific area of regulation, which is rather difficult to bring to a single "normative denominator", namely, relations that are characteristic only of the sports system"8.
Attempts are being made to limit the practice of transferring or transferring athletes to other clubs or schools before they reach the age of majority. [Gnizdovskaya, A. M., 2018]. However, the lack of clear regulation leads to the fact that children turn into a type of capital (as indicated in Resolution 1875 (2012) of PACE - Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe ), young athletes are treated as a commodity, which increases the risk of violations of their rights by both individuals and organised crime. In this regard, PACE recommends introducing into national legislation the following:
13.1. prohibiting commercial transfers of athletes under the age of 16 to prevent minors from becoming the subject of financial transactions;
13.2. prohibiting the payment of remuneration to intermediaries for athletes under the age of 16 (this prohibition should also apply to non-commercial transfers);
13.3. making mandatory (for all sports) measures arising from the ten recommendations adopted by the Union of Professional Football Clubs of France (UCPF) regarding the admission of foreign minors to the club;
13.4. make it mandatory to combine sports with school / vocational education, without which the transfer to another club will be considered invalid, regardless of the legal form in which it took place (transfer, rent, etc.);
13.5. prohibiting the issuance of student or tourist visas to athletes and considering the possibility of introducing special visas that take into account the specifics of sports and ensure monitoring of the migration movement of athletes9.
Features of transfers of minor athletes. URL: http://sportfiction.ru/books/chet-vertaya-mezhdunarodnaya-nauchno-prakticheskaya-konferentsiya-sportivnoe-pra-vo-perspektivy-razvitiya-materialy-konferentsii/?bookpart=195884
Good governance and ethics in sports. Resolution of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe 1875 (2012). URL: https://www.coe.int/T/r/Parliamentary_ Assembly/[Russian_documents]/%5B2012%5D/%5BApr2012%5D/Res1875_rus. asp#P6_148
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Sports Violence
Studies devoted to the problem of violence refer to the presence of sport specific risk factors [Cense, M. and Brackenridge, C., 2001; Abdulkarimov, S. A., 2006; Alekseeva, A. P., 2012]. In this case, the reference is to physical violence during training, notably in the framework of a sports game or in connection with it.
Violence as a training method has a long tradition in sports and is often considered essential for athletic performance. Thus, V. S. Sbitnev and K. V. Kharagezov emphasise that "in its competitive nature, the sport is already aggressive, as athletes in competitions tend to suppress their rivals. Therefore, it is impossible to completely exclude violence from sport, it is generated by the spirit of rivalry in order to resist the opponent" [Sbitnev, V. S. and Kharagezov, K. V., 2018, p. 154]. Indeed, certain risks in sports are inevitably present. This is particularly the case with so called contact sports such as wrestling, hockey, football, etc.
In sports sociology, the typology of sports violence developed by the Canadian sociologist Michael D. Smith has gained particular popularity. He singled out four categories of violence in sports, two of which are "hard contact with the body" and "borderline violence", manifested, for example, in taking the ball in a football match or elbowing an opponent while playing basketball. In sports, this is considered permissible, and only in exceptional cases it can be a violation of ethical norms or the rules of the game. The third category of violence - "quasi-criminal violence" - actions that violate not only the rules of the game, but in some cases may lead to criminal liability. For example, hitting the head with a fist during a football match. And, fourth, "criminal violence" is an act that causes serious harm to the health of an athlete or even death, it almost always entails criminal liability of the player. For example, a deliberate blow, carried out in violation of the rules, during a fight, causing serious harm to the health of an athlete [Smith, M. D., 1983].
But this typology does not take into account psychological and sexual abuse. In this case, the behaviour is not aggressive and the violence is not noticeable, but in terms of the severity of the consequences, it is more dangerous than physical violence.
Paolo David [David, P., 2005, p. 56] classifies the types of violence applied to minors in sports as follows:
1. Physical: excessive exercise, insufficient rest, corporal punishment, restriction in food, dieting, peer violence, encouragement of a "playful" attitude, imposed use of doping;
2. Sexual: verbal comments, physical abuse, abusive touching, rape;
3. Psychological: excessive pressure, verbal abuse, emotional abuse;
4. Neglect: failure to provide proper care and attention, willful negligence, imposed isolation.
Studies conducted in Belgium and the Netherlands show that of the athletes under the age of 18 who were surveyed, 38% of respondents report -
ed psychological abuse, 11% - physical and 14% of sexual abuse [Vertom-men, T., et al., 2016].
Many famous athletes talk about cases of physical violence that others perceived as normal or tried not to pay attention. In turn, a minor athlete was afraid to seek help from parents, coaches for fear of being expelled from a club, school, team, upset parents, publicity and so on10.
Hazing and sexual violence in sports are issues that are increasingly gaining public scrutiny, notably thanks to the media.
Hazing is sports-related violence perpetrated by a member or members of a sports group against a person seeking to be included in, join or accept the group. Hazing can be in the form of initiation of new team members by veterans of the team, accompanied, inter alia, by sexual violence. Many hazing practices when celebrating the start or end of a season include degrading behavior, alcohol consumption, promiscuous or sexually explicit, violent acts against individuals or groups, either in the presence of a coach or with his approval [Fields, S. K., Collins, C. L. and Comstock, R. D., 2010].
Sexual violence can be found in all sports, and its prevalence in children's sports ranges from 2% to 22% [Brackenridge, C. H., et al., 2008].
Most of the research on sexual abuse focuses on the coach as the perpetrator and the athlete as the victim.
A feature of the sports life of children is that coaches and students spend long hours together. They live together in sports camps, in hotels, in sports boarding schools, away from home and outside parental control. Coaches are often actually substitutes for parents, and their authority is rarely questioned by both parents and athletes. Young athletes develop strong bonds with them and develop a special relationship of trust. This is superimposed on the inability, unwillingness or excessive trust of parents and even illiteracy, which do not allow them to closely monitor the physical or mental state of the child, their relationship [Kirby, S. L., Greaves, L. and Hankivsky, O., 2000; Lozh-kin, G. V., Volianyuk, N. Yu. and Kolosov, A. B., 2009; Lozhkin, G. V., Vo-lianyuk, N. Yu. and Kolosov, A. B., 2017].
Unfortunately, sport is an ideal environment for sexual violence and harassment, since it is closed to outsiders and allows behaviour that, for example, is unacceptable at school. The trainer can touch children during training, relying on the confidence or trust of the child and parents. This physical contact initiated by the trainer creates a grey zone between appropriate and abusive behavior, which in turn causes limited disclosure. One example - the coach of a sports school in Odintsovo near Moscow has allegedly corrupted six of his child athletes for several years. For a long time, they did not tell any-
10 "I was a living corpse": Elena Berezhnaya on partner violence and romance with Sikharulidze. URL: https://www.cosmo.ru/stars/news/08-07-2020/ya-byla-zhivym-trupom-elena-berezhnaya-o-nasilii-partnera-i-romane-s-siharulidze/
one about what was happening, but later they themselves went to the police. The case is currently being taken to court11.
Sexual abuse can also take place in a locker room, in a sports camp and be committed by one child against another, can be committed on a train en route to competitions with the connivance of coaches, persons accompanying children to the competition sites, doctors, etc.
The types of violence listed above are closely interconnected. But psychological abuse is at the heart of any type of violence, since it is impossible to imagine harassment or physical abuse that does not have a psychological background [Sabato, T. M., Walch, T. J. and Caine, D. J., 2016]. The form of psychological violence should also include the excessive competition of children in sports encouraged by adults ("victory at any cost") [Cook, D. T. and Cole, C. L., 2001, p. 227], which subsequently leads them to emotional breakdowns, burnout, etc.
Finally, we must not forget that modern children, like all children, spend a lot of time online. Cyber harassment and online abuse is used in sports, including for the purpose of committing psychological or sexual abuse (online and in the real world), in order to use images for the sexual exploitation ("sextortion") of children [Sanderson, J. and Weathers, M. R., 2020].
It would be naive to think that children involved in sports, especially professional ones, do not use doping. The history of the state system of compulsory doping in the former GDR in the 1970s and 1980s became widely known. German athletes aged 12 and over were given doping under the guise of vitamins and supportive agents. The health consequences were so serious that the Federal Republic of Germany adopted a special law "On financial assistance to victims of doping in the GDR", which was in effect until 2007. A total of 194 former athletes received compensation. There was a similar situation in Russia.
In October 2020, a verdict under Art. 2301 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation was handed down in relation to a sports coach. He had been found guilty of personally injecting his students during the preparation for a powerlift-ing competition. Inter alia, it was said that he "used the established relationship of trust with his students to convince them of the need to use injections to temporarily improve athletic performance". The coach was found guilty not only under article 2301 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, part 2 "Inducing an athlete to use substances and (or) methods prohibited for use in sports, committed against a knowingly underage athlete or two or more athletes", but also under article 234 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, part 1 "Illegal circulation of potent or poisonous substances for the purpose of marketing"12.
11 The coach of a sports school in the Moscow region will be tried for violence against female students. URL: https://www.rosbalt.ru/moscow/2020/11/19/1873767.html
12 For the first time in Russia, a verdict has been passed on minors for doping. URL: https: //www.vesti.ru/article/2477412
Poor Medical Care
This is also a form of abuse against underage athletes. In particular, this can be the overuse and systematic prescription of drugs, including analgesics, diuretics (used for weight loss), pain relievers, sleeping pills, and more seriously doctor-prescribed drugs (painkillers, stimulants, sleeping pills) of which 13-68% are anabolic androgenic steroids. This is another common form of abuse of minors, and the associated health risks associated with it, should be recognised as a common situation in sports, when decisions about injuries are made not by doctors, but by coaches [Bergeron, M. F., et al., 2015].
Discussion and Conclusion
Child abuse is a general term that encompasses various types of adult misconduct towards children. However, in the context of sports, the boundaries of such behaviour are often blurred.
There is no doubt that playing sports is beneficial and even necessary for a child. Nevertheless, the impact of sports on a child's development largely depends on the conditions in which he trains. As a rule, child abuse in sports negatively affects their physical and psychological health, becomes the cause of injury and refusal to participate in sports.
Due to its closed nature, it is almost impossible to understand the real scale of the problems discussed above in sport. The lack of a single concept and associated indicators of abuse in sport means that it is difficult to draw accurate conclusions about the prevalence of this phenomenon. In addition, sports organisations are reluctant to go public with known ill-treatment in an effort to protect their reputation or hide the lack of adequate safeguards. But despite this, it should be recognised that there is abuse of minors in sports, and, therefore, this issue deserves special consideration.
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in its Preamble establishes that "children have the right to special care and assistance", special protection and adequate legal protection13.
In turn, Art. 5 of the Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse states that "each Party shall take the necessary legislative or other measures to raise awareness of the protection and guarantee of children's rights among persons who regularly come into contact with children in the field of education, health care, social protection, justice and law enforcement, as well as in areas related to sports, culture and leisure"14.
13 Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York, November 20, 1989) // Compilation of UN standards and norms in the field of crime prevention and criminal justice. UN; New York, 1992.
14 Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (Lanzarote, October 25, 2007) // Bulletin of International Treaties. June 2014. No. 6.
Obviously, there is no "one-size-fits-all" solution to tackling child abuse. In addition, a key problem today is the lack of research on the scope and nature of the problem, as well as on effective measures to prevent child abuse in sports.
At the same time, it must be recognised that child abuse by athletes is a systemic problem that requires a comprehensive solution, in which both sports organisations and law enforcement agencies should participate.
An analysis of the documents developed by international organisations, as well as domestic normative acts, shows that most of the recommendations are still formulated in a general form and unclear. Some types of abuse, and, in particular, sexual violence and related problems, exploitation, etc. are not discussed in detail. The boundaries of the relationship between a coach and an athlete are also not completely clear for either side, the codes of professional sports ethics do not provide an answer to this question and are formulated in the most general form.
To address the issues discussed, sports representatives need to work closely with ethicists, human rights experts, psychologists, doctors and lawyers.
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Информация об авторе / Information about the author
Ekaterina N. Rakhmanova, Dr. Sci. (Law), Associate Professor, Head of the Criminal Law Department, North-West Branch, Russian State University of Justice (5 Aleksandrovsky Park, St. Petersburg, 197046, Russian Federation). Рахманова Екатерина Николаевна, доктор юридических наук, доцент, заведующий кафедрой уголовного права Северо-Западного филиала ФГБОУВО «Российский государственный университет правосудия» (Российская Федерация, 197046, г. Санкт-Петербург, Александровский парк, д. 5).
ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4602-4676. E-mail: ekaterina.rachmanova@gmail.com
Автор заявляет об отсутствии конфликта интересов. The author declares no conflicts of interests.
Дата поступления рукописи в редакцию издания: 10.02.2021; дата одобрения после рецензирования: 30.03.2021; дата принятия статьи к опубликованию: 12.05.2021.
Submitted: 10.02.2021; reviewed: 30.03.2021; revised: 12.05.2021.
