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screen of democracy. The trend to creation in Kirghizstan of the clan and family power is clearly displayed. The five years drift of the republic from former well-being via some failures resulted in evident autocracy. Did it correspond to the expectations of the people after events in 2005?
Despite these gloomy appraisals of the present situation in Kirghizstan, I remain an optimist concerning perspectives of my republic's development. The historic destiny of Kirghizstan is characterized by difficulties, the contemporary hardships did not avoid the country. Many peoples just survived for the period of hard times, achievements and failures, but they found the ways to the dignified outcome from seemingly blind allies. I am convinced that the project of creation a Kirghiz khanate with inherited power will fail in the XXI century. The course with the trend to development of democracy, positive reforms, determined for the years of the first presidency, will overcome. The democratic wave is getting more powerful impulse, which will not leave out Kirghistan.
Having been closely connected with the republic by many means, I see clearly that resuscitating springs come out of the present pressure, new forces grow, which will never reconcile with the return of the country to the medieval khanate order of national life. These facts give hope to the people.
"Svobdnaya mysl", M., 2010, N 2, p. 27-40.
Z. Dadabaeva, doctor of political sciences TAJIKISTAN: POTENTIAL OF FRONTIER COOPERATION
After the USSR dissolution the countries of Central Asia officially adhere to a principle of inviolability of borders. Such decision
was fixed in August having signed the Declaration by Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan where the parties declared a collective responsibility for inviolability of borders with the third states and about inviolability of new borders. However, in practice the states of Central Asian region face with a number of hard frontier problems and contradictions considerably complicating political and trade-economic contacts between them. Trans-frontier cooperation is considerably complicated because of unfinished delimitation and demarcation of "internal" boundaries between the central-Asian states serving interests of frontier ethnos.
A sharp question arouse on drawing and development of the new state borders of Tajikistan after having declared independence. Frontier regime imposing guaranteeing a necessary level of the country security and territorial limits defining for sovereignty impact were required for development of a new nationhood. Numerous knots of interstate contradictions were a result of changing administrative borders into state ones. The republic is contiguous with Uzbekistan in the west and in the north (border length -1161 km) and Kyrgyzstan (911km), in the east - with China (522 km), in the south- with Afghanistan (1387 km). A small territory of Afghanistan being by width from 15 to65 km (Vakhansky corridor) separates Tajikistan from India and Pakistan.
All oblasts of Tajikistan are frontier. 26 administrative areas among 59 are frontier but there are border check-points and transport connection only in 19 among them. Infrastructure of frontier zone is mostly developed along so-called old borders left after the USSR, i.e. the borders with Afghanistan and China. Trans-frontier cooperation at the different parts of the Tajik border depends on character of relationship of the frontier states and the existing border problems between them.
The Tajik-Uzbek border
The Tajik-Uzbek interstate relations are the most complicated and conflicting among bilateral relations among the countries of Central Asia. Their high proneness to conflict is associated with the problems on a lack of proper regulation of some sections of common borders, using water and energy resources, territorial claims and ethnic contradictions. So far, in spite of Uzbekistan's and Tajikistan's participation in CIS, EAEC, CSTO and SCO the problems on mine clearing of the Tajik-Uzbek border aren't solved.
The citizens of frontier areas have the right to be in the neighboring territory no more than 5 days without visa. Thereby, many Tajiks are longing for being admitted to the Russian citizenship in order to get to neighboring territory without difficulty. Crossing the border check-points the citizens of frontier areas of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan have to use unlawful ways to cross a border because of the barriers often resulting in criminal or administrative prosecution, explosion by mines and etc. Beginning from 1999 after the acts of terrorism in Tashkent Uzbekistan mined unilaterally a frontier on its part. According to official returns it was done to defend Uzbekistan from the armed soldier of the Islamic movement penetration. More than 120 dangerous sections on the Tajik-Uzbek border -more than 25 millions square meters and 700 km of roads are mined and are dangerous for transport and people.
One of the reasons for contradictions between the region states is a difficulty to observe economic interests on maintenance and exploitation of hydro technical objects when Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan bear general expenses to keep hydro-irrigative systems in a working order but Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan use most of water resources.
Hydro resources are Tajikistan's wealth. The country ranks third in their reserves in the world and second - over the post soviet area. 60% of fresh water capacity of the region is in glaciers of this republic. In 2009 water-energy argument broke out with renewed vigor between two countries after Tajikistan's adoption a decision on construction of Rogunskaya hydroelectric station by its own forces. It caused a very negative response from the party of Uzbekistan having developed into unofficial blockade of Tajikistan (goods transit, gas supply stopping, energy blockade in wither, mass communication media's pressing and etc.).
At the same time not only Tajikistan will profit from Rogunskaya hydroelectric station's construction - a new station will allow Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan flooding 3 millions hectares as a whole. Now the neighbors don't hurry to share their income with Dushanbe being gained for the account of Tajikistan's river water - Syr Darya, Pyanja and Vakhsha what, in particular, contradicts to UN Convention 1997. According to international water use right Tajikistan is to have income-sharing and compensations the neighbors have using water resources of the republic.
According to experts in Tajikistan the republic of Central Asia must use the new economically mutually acceptable principles and mechanisms of water use. Dushanbe suggests building such mechanisms into Interstate agreement on water and energy resources of the river basin Syr Darya being developed by the region state.
General opening and use of natural resources deposit at the frontier territories can be the important constituent of the Tajik-Uzbek relations. The big Konimansur - the second among the largest deposits of silver in the world is located in the north of the republic near the border with Uzbekistan. According to specialists silver reserves will be enough more than for 150 years annually mining up to 50kg if to
organize operations correctly. Tajikistan leads in stibium reserves in CIS. The largest deposit is "Skal'noe" (more than 50% of stibium reserves of CIS). 214 deposits of the other natural resources are in Sogdiiskoy oblast being contiguous with Uzbekistan. Kshut-Zauranskoe and Fan-Yagnobskoe coal-mining deposits are the most perspective among non-metallic mineral resources; one can get cheap liquid and gaseous fuel out these coals. Coal reserves are here more than 1 milliards tons. Coals are of high quality and a great heating capacity; 80% among them are coking. Oil deposits at the border with Uzbekistan were actively mined during the soviet period. Oil was supplied in the Fergansky oil-refining plant. Now oil is refined in Tajikistan.
The Tajik-Kyrgyz border
Frontier problems between Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan are far from a final decision. Territorial arguments began here during the soviet period at the beginning 80-s. Up to 70 questionable sections are in Lyailyaksky district of Oshskoi and Batkenskoi oblasts of Kyrgyzstan, Isfarinskom district of Sogdiiskoy oblast and Jirgital'skom district of Tajikistan. Power industry, rational and effective use of water resources, general mineral exploration and mining operations, transport infrastructure improving and common transport policy implementing, joint enterprises establishment in the industry, cooperative supply developing and trade classification of export and import operations increasing are the priority trends of the Tajik-Kyrgyz cooperation. Practically all the arable lands and pastures are cultivated in the frontier districts of the both republics. Land deficit and border uncertainty has already caused the armed conflict between the Kyrgyz and the Tajik in Batkenskom district. Rapidly growing unemployment among the youth also strengthens tension in the frontier villages. Low living standards of
the population, unemployment against background of critical deficit of lands and water resources brings to that interethnic tension doesn't slacken in the frontier districts of the both republics.
According to experts the arbitrary demarcation between the central-Asian republics during the soviet period when economic reasonability was a determining factor but ethnic and national factors were of minor importance is the basis of the arguments. The Tajik enclaves at the Kyrgyz territory create additional difficulties during the negotiations. Moreover, these enclaves become more isolated from Tajikistan and also from surrounding Kyrgyz territory. Isolation causes a feeling of alienation preparing the ground for the Islamic radicalism and ethnic nationalism.
The Tajik-Chinese border
People's Republic of China is the only among the frontier countries having no unsolved border problems now. China pretended to three questionable sections at the territory of Gorno-Badakhshanskoy autonomous region the entirety containing more than 20 thousands square meters. Dushanbe ceded to Peking only 4,5% (990square meters) of questionable territory after the painstaking work of the experts and the negotiations of the joint commission of the CIS countries during 6 years (this commission was formed in 1992 of the representatives of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia and Tajikistan).
The boundary between the countries passes along highland territory being difficult of access. In June 2006 one began demarcation operations here being ended in 2008. The highway via the pass "Kul'ma" was opened in autumn 2004 and it was one of the most important results in solving frontier problems. The direct transport corridor Tashkurgan (China) -Khorog via the pass "Kul"ma" (4363 m) on Sarykol'skom mountain ridge opened the direct access for Tajikistan
to Sin'tszyan-Uygursky autonomous district (SUAD) (China) and via Pakistan to the Indian Ocean. A high level of the ethnic contacts between the frontier districts of Tajikistan and SUAD where the Moslem population lives allowed bolstering trade-economic ties.
China is in the leader five of foreign trade partners of Tajikistan. The country has this republic lead in joint enterprise number. China actively invests the Tajik light industry, in particular, cotton and silk industry besides building and power industry. The Chinese companies could get involved in joint development fields of gold and silver, coal and rare metals owing a transport access of the region via the pass "Kul'ma".
The Tajik-Afghan border
The border passes along the river Pyanj, Afghanistan is contiguous with Gorno-Badakhshanskaya Autonomous oblast, Khatlonskaya oblast, Voseisky district and also Jilikul'sky district where there is a nature reserve "Tigrovaya balka" at the frontier territory. Tajikistan and Afghanistan are united with the common historical past, common cultural values, traditions and customs, common religion and language. As early as in April 2005 11 interstate and inter-government agreements were signed between the countries; one of the most important agreement is "Treaty of friendship, cooperation and good-neighborliness between Republic Tajikistan and the Islamic republic Afghanistan". The cooperation between Tajikistan and Afghanistan is based, first of all, on security insuring in the region and on hydroelectric and transport-communication project development.
Since October 2001 Tajikistan implements uninterrupted transit supply of the international humanitarian assistance for Afghanistan's population. Procedures of customs and border procedures between two
countries are simplified. Dushanbe provided air and ground area of the republic for rescue and humanitarian operations by forces of the international anti-terrorist coalition. According to UNO more than 60% of the whole humanitarian assistance of the world community for Afghanistan is supplied via Tajikistan. The Tajik airline was the first among the CIS countries which fixed scheduled flights in Kabul. A number of bridges are built at the border via the river Pyanj in order to restore economy and a social sphere of Afghanistan.
The frontier cooperation includes not only security but also assistance for a development of legal trade and transit making the living conditions of the frontier communities better. Program of the European commission on "Assistance in border control and drug distribution prevention in Central Asia" includes adjustment measures of this activity. The program is directed towards the assistance for state departments of Tajikistan being responsible for border security and struggle against drug traffic. This activity is carried out in close cooperation with the countries-members of EU, USA and some international organizations.
Transport is the important trend of the Tajik-Afghan cooperation. One can observe Tajikistan as one of the main transit ways in Afghanistan taking into account border length. Thereupon the parties place special emphasis on bridge building via the frontier river Pyanj, road network and infrastructure development. The problem on railway line building "Dushanbe-Kurgan-Tyube-Kunduz" is considered. Tajikistan will get access to the ports of the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf when these object building is ended and the roads are reconstructed in the north of Afghanistan.
The other important trend of two countries cooperation is hydropower engineering. As early as in March 2002 "Protocol on electric main re-building and new object building" was signed between
the Department of Energy of Tajikistan and the Ministry of Water Management and Energy of Afghanistan. The energetic company "Barki Tochik" carried the work to completion on electric main rebuilding during carrying out this project. As a result Tajikistan has a possibility to supply annually energy by volume 1,5 milliards kW/h to the neighboring districts of Afghanistan in summer. In 2008 Dushanbe put forward a proposal on the international energy consortium establishing with a participation of USA, Pakistan, India and the other countries to build Dashtijumskoy hydroelectric power station on the river Pyanj (rated capacity 4 millions kW and annual production 15,6 milliards kW/h of electricity). Water as the most valuable resource under conditions of Central Asia can be used by volume 17 milliards m3 both for watering in reservoir of Dashtijumskoi hydroelectric power station and for the needs of agriculture of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Afghanistan.
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The neighboring with four states creates prerequisites for Tajikistan's changing into the important chain of transport communications connecting the countries of central Asia and CIS as a whole with the Eastern and the South Asia. The peculiarities of the geographical position of the republic, its mountainous relief, the lack of sea and river routes, underdevelopment of railway road and sky way network demands highway building and motor transport development in Tajikistan. Today more than 85,3% of the total flow of traffic in Tajikistan is realized by motor transport.
Vast network of highways built during the soviet period was the part of the large allied infrastructure not accounting the needs and demands of some republics into account. Tajikistan's center was
connected by the roads running across the territory of allied republics. The problems on transport transit along the territory of the neighboring states emerged after the independent states formation and customs "wars" flared up. In winter the northern part of the republic and the Pamirs were completely isolated until recently from the center.
Outlets of Tajikistan to the world transport arteries run across the territories of the neighboring republics so Tajikistan's economy faced severe problems because of breaking economic relations within the bounds of the former USSR. The country turned out to be in transport isolation. Republic remoteness from the world transport arteries, high costs of traffic, the lack of roads which would connect Tajikistan with perspective trade-economic partners and the region neighbors -China, Pakistan, India and Iran - don't favor the development of economic relations under new conditions.
Tajikistan's cooperation with contiguous Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan is being developed irregularly and inconsistently with the exception of China's cooperation investing not only economy of the republic but giving credits for Dushanbe but rendering a great humanitarian assistance. The problems of frontier relations with China are practically solved and two states successfully expand trade-economic relations.
At the same time a number of questions on bilateral relations are still unsolved such as elimination of visas and mine clearing of the borders with Uzbekistan, territorial and water problems with Kyrgyzstan, continuous flow of drugs from Afghanistan and terrorist sallies from contiguous territories. Tajikistan will have perspective for constructive interaction and mutually advantageous cooperation ahead of it when controlling the existing contradictions gradually and step-by-step and solving all the problems of bilateral relations.
"Rossiya i novye gosudarstva Evrazii", M., 2010, N1, p. 52-63.
