CC BY
12
VLADIMIR KIRICHENKO. SYNTHESIS OF SHIISM AND SOCIALISM IN THE POLITICAL LIFE OF IRAN BEFORE AND AFTER THE 1979 ISLAMIC REVOLUTION
Keywords: Iran; Islamic revolution;
Islam; socialism; Sharia; Talegani; Forkan;
OMIN.
Vladimir Kirichenko,
Research Associate,
Center for Study of Common Problems of Contemprory East, IOS, RAS, e-mail: [email protected] © V. Kirichenko 2023
Citation: Kirichenko V. Synthesis of Shiism and Socialism in the Political Life of Iran before and after the 1979 Islamic Revolution / Russia and the Moslem World : Science-Information Journal, 2023, № 2 (320), P. 78-93. DOI: 10.31249/rmw/2023.02.07
Abstract. In the late 1970s, dissatisfaction with the rule of the latter Shah of Iran Reza-Shah Pahlavi (1941-1979) led to the spread of oppositional ideas in Iranian society. The works of sociologist Ali Shariati (1933-1977) were particularly popular. His ideas were a kind of synthesis of Shiite Islam and socialist principles. Ayatollah Taleghani (1911-1979). He also tolerated left-wing political forces and spoke out for public ownership of land. However, after the Islamic Revolution (1979), the ideas of Shariati and Talegani were never implemented. And supporters of the synthesis of Islam and socialism after the overthrow of the Shah, began the struggle with the new Islamic authorities.
The reign of the last Shah of Iran, Reza Shah Pahlavi (19411979), was marked by a number of social and economic reforms. The reforms were aimed at the speedy development of agriculture and industry. According to the 1962 land reform, the government bought 1,600 villages (19,5% of Iran's agricultural land) from landowners and transferred them to the management of peasant families. Landowners were forbidden to own more
than one village. In addition, many new enterprises were built, and industrial employment increased dramatically.1
During the Shah's rule, Iran became one of the U.S. allies in the Middle East along with Saudi Arabia. Washington has provided Iran with military and economic assistance.2 However, the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah was marked by internal unrest. In 1951, Mohammed Mossadegh (1982-1967)3 became Prime Minister. He set as his goal the nationalization of the oil industry.
Mosaddegh's policy received the support of Iranians and the country's parliament, as the prime minister sought to restore Iranian sovereignty. Mossadegh managed to take control of almost all spheres of state power, including the military power.
While in power, he imposed martial law in the country, banned civil servants' strikes, suspended elections to the Senate and Majlis and restricted press freedom. He used the profits from the oil industry to improve the domestic economic situation and tried to put an end to foreign interference in Iran's affairs.
In 1953, Mohammad Reza Shah was forced to leave Iran under pressure from the Mosaddegh government4. However, Mosaddegh's policy of nationalizing the oil industry contradicted the interests of Great Britain and the United States. In this regard, the American intelligence services organized a military coup and in 1953 Mossadegh was overthrown, and Shah Reza Pahlavi returned to the country.
The reign of Mohammad Reza Shah cannot be evaluated unambiguously. On the one hand, thanks to the economic reforms carried out by the Shah, Iran has become a powerful industrial power. On the other hand, the policy of Westernization pursued by the Shah did not resonate with the majority of the Iranian population. By the end of the 1970s the economy stagnated, and inflation led to a decline in living standards. British researcher D. Hiro characterizes the economic conditions in Iran before the Islamic Revolution as follows: "In the mid-1970s, the exodus from rural areas increased. This, in particular,
was due to the government's attempt to curb inflation by establishing price controls on agricultural products. The population of large centers (over 100 thousand people) was almost 30% of the total population of Iran. At the same time, living conditions in the city were deteriorating everywhere: shortage of housing, electricity and water everywhere. In the five years preceding the revolution, rents increased by 300% and amounted to about half of the income of most urban families"5.
All this led to the fact that many Iranians were dissatisfied with the regime. The Shah was criticized for corruption and incompetence of government officials. In addition, the Shah's regime used SAVAK, an American-trained secret police, to harass opponents of his government6, which also did not add to the
popularity of the Iranian leader.
* * *
Dissatisfaction with the Shah's regime led to the spread of oppositional ideas in Iranian society. Among them were ideologies that combined traditional Islamic values and socialist principles. This kind of synthesis formed the basis of the ideas of the Iranian sociologist Ali Shariati, whose works were especially popular in the last decades of the Shah's regime (especially among students).
Ali Shariati7 was born in 1933 in a village near Mashhad. His father, Mohammad Taqi Shariati, was a liberal cleric who ran his own lecture hall and taught Islam to children at a local high school. As a schoolboy, Ali Shariati attended discussion groups organized by his father, and in the late 1940s, father and son joined a small group called the "Movement of Worshiping Socialists". This group did not set political goals for itself, and its activities were of a religious and philosophical nature. At the same time, members of this association of intellectuals for the first time in Iran tried to find common ideas in socialism with Shiism.
In 1958, Shariati entered Mashhad University to obtain a master's degree in foreign languages, specializing in Arabic and
French. After receiving his master's degree in 1960, he entered the Sorbonne University for a degree in sociology and the history of Islam. In Paris, at the height of the Algerian and Cuban revolutions, he immersed himself in radical political philosophy, as well as in revolutionary student organizations. He joined the Iranian Student Confederation and the Iranian Freedom Movement8, which were formed in 1961-1962, followers of Mosaddegh9. It was during his stay in France that Shariati began to formulate his political and philosophical identity.
Shariati saw Islam as a dynamic force that could inspire an uprising against the Shah10. Ali Shariati wrote: "Like the revolutionary party, Shiism had a well-thought-out, information-rich, deeply rooted and well-developed ideology, clear-cut and well-defined slogans, as well as a disciplined and well-trained organization. He led the unprivileged and oppressed masses in their quest for freedom and the search for justice.11" At the same time, despite the fact that Shariati actively used Marxist terminology to describe the political situation in Iran, he criticized Marxism. Shariati was not satisfied with the fact that Marxism does not recognize the role of the individual in history and reduces human life only to productive activity12. Atheism was also unacceptable for Shariati.
The Russian researcher A. Kuznetsov characterizes Shariati's attitude to Western ideas as follows: "Shariati sought to combine Islamic thinking with the achievements of Western thought, arguing that there is no need to follow any particular Western thinker, while all the best that progressive thought has achieved in the West has already been embodied in one person -Imam Ali. In the concept of Shariati, the class struggle is the embodiment of the historical confrontation between "monotheistic Islam" and "polytheistic Islam". He attributed the path of Imam Ali (Islam-e Alawi) to the first category, and groups of hypocrites fighting for their selfish interests under the slogans of Islam to the second category.13" The ideal for Shariati was a monotheistic classless society14.
Ali Shariati died in 1977, the official cause of death was a heart attack, but there is a version about the involvement of the Iranian special services in the death of the scientist15. After the change of the political regime in Iran in 1979, the ideas of A. Shariati were not in demand by the new authorities. Perhaps one of the reasons for this attitude to the legacy of Shariati was the critical attitude of the scientist to the Shiite clergy.
The scientist accused the Ulama of becoming an integral part of the ruling class, "institutionalizing" revolutionary Shiism and thereby betraying its original goals. According to Shariati, the clergy treated the sacred texts as fossilized scholastic parchments, and not as a source of inspiration for a revolutionary worldview. Shariati has often stressed that the return to true Islam will take place not under the leadership of the clergy, but under the leadership of the progressive intelligentsia16.
In addition, Shariati was often criticized by the clergy for some judgments concerning theological issues. An example of this is the idea of Shariati about the unity of God and man,
apparently borrowed from Sufism17.
* * *
One of the most popular religious figures of the period of the Islamic Revolution was Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani18, who was very tolerant of socialist ideas.
Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani was born in 1911, he became one of the most influential clerics who stood at the origins of the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Taleghani studied religion in Qom, where he was a fellow student of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini19. Later he became a teacher in Tehran. In 1938, during the reign of Shah Mohammad Reza (1919-1980), Ayatollah Taleghani was sentenced to a one-year imprisonment for criticizing the methods of Shah Reza Pahlavi's rule20.
After the abdication of Reza Shah from the throne in 1941, Taleghani created an Islamic Society, which began as a meeting
for the purpose of interpreting the Quran, but then expanded to include discussions of religious modernism. It was thanks to the Islamic Society that the close cooperation of Muhmud Taleghani and the long-time opponent of the Shah's regime, Mehdi Bazargan (1907-1995)21, began.
Together they founded the democratic party "Movement for Freedom of Iran". Taleghani was also associated with the "National Resistance Movement" (NRM), which was organized in 1961. It was founded by various supporters of Mosaddegh in order to continue the policy of the prime minister after his overthrow in 195322. Taleghani has established ties with the Iranian communists and the Islamic left-wingers23 since the 1960s.
Subsequently, Taleghani and his family's tolerant attitude to leftist political views became one of the reasons for the conflict with Khomeini. The conflict escalated after Taleghani's two sons, who were members of various left-wing radical organizations, were arrested. After the arrest of his sons, Ayatollah Taleghani criticized the actions of the Islamic militia and revolutionary committees acting on behalf of Khomeini. The ayatollah warned that the nation could "fall back into the hands of dictatorship and despotism"24.
One of his five sons, Syed-Mojtaba, was a member of the People's Mujahideen, the Islamic socialist guerrilla group Sazman Peikar25. Another son was a member of the Marxist organization Fedain-e-Khalq26.
Russian researcher G.P. Avdeev believes that through Taleghani's relatives, the Palestinians tried to inform the leadership of Iran about the connections with the Americans of some Islamic figures who held higher positions27.
The arrest of Ayatollah Taleghani's sons caused large-scale protests, as a result of which they were released28. The ayatollah did not escalate the conflict with the Iranian leadership and after the meeting with Khomeini said: "The leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini is recognized not only by me, but also by the world. He is a source of faith, sincerity, determination and honesty.
I have always approved of his struggle, his words and his projects"29.
Taleghani advocated a special path of development based on the principles of "true Islam". According to the ayatollah, such a pure form of Islamic religion existed only for a short time under the Prophet Mohammed and Imam Ali30. Proceeding from the idea that according to Islam, the land belongs to God, Taleghani argued that the land and its subsoil cannot be privately owned, and personal use should not go against the collective interests of society31.
In his teaching one can find acceptance of some socialist postulates. So, he proposed to Taleghani to create councils in Iran in which citizens would defend their interests. The primary link was the village council, and the final one was the supreme Council. Thus, the system would cover all levels of government32. Taleghani's initiative did not contradict Islamic principles, and initially Ayatollah Khomeini supported the creation of councils, but later Taleghani's initiative was rejected. Taleghani's ideas about the state structure based on the norms of Islam coincided in
essence with leftist, socialist principles, but were not implemented.
* * *
The synthesis of Islamic and socialist ideas often became the basis of the ideology of Iranian terrorist groups. One of them was the "People's Mujahideen Organization of Iran" (PMOI). It was founded in the 1960s by a group of Iranian leftists, people with higher education, opposed to the pro-Western rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The founders of this group were Mohammad Hanifnejad and Said Mohseni Aliasgar Badizadegan. The ideology of the organization was a variant of radical political Islam and echoed the ideas of Ali Shariati. At the same time, the members of the group had a Marxist understanding of politics and history33.
According to the US State Department, for a decade, OMIP organized terrorist attacks against the state, as a result of which several Americans working in Iran, including officers and civilian specialists, were killed34. In 1975, some of the members of the OMIP left the group, taking Marxist positions and forming the "Organization of the Struggle for the Freedom of the Working Class" (Paykar).
PMOI practically ceased to exist. It was recreated by the Islamic activist Masoud Rajavi, who joined PMOI as a student. In 1971, he was arrested by the Shah's special services and sentenced to death for terrorist activities. Subsequently, due to international interference, the death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Rajavi was released from prison during the events of the 1979 Islamic Revolution. After his release, he took over the leadership of the PMOI35.
Although the group took part in the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the ideology of the PMOI, which is a mixture of Marxism and Islamism, contradicted the views of the new Islamic authorities36. In 1981, the organization blew up the headquarters of the Islamic Republican Party. As a result, 73 Iranian officials were killed, including one of the leaders of the Islamic Revolution, Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti37. Iranian President Mohammad Ali Rajai and Prime Minister Mohammad Javad Bahonar38 were killed by members of the organization. After the prohibition of the activities of the PMOI in Iran, the headquarters of the organization was moved to France (1982), and then to Iraq (1986)39.
The PMOI sided with Iraq in the Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1988. In 1986, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein created the Ashraf military camp for members of the organization, located north of Baghdad. PMOI units were fighting against the Iranian army.
Also, the armed formations of the PMOI allegedly took part in suppressing the uprisings of Shiites and Kurds in Iraq in 1991199240. In April 1992, PMOI members attacked 10 Iranian embassies, including the Iranian UN mission in New York. These
actions were accompanied by hostage-taking, as well as arson of buildings and cars. Several Iranian ambassadors were injured41. Masoud Rajavi disappeared in Iraq in 2003 during the US invasion of the country. His whereabouts are unknown. After that, the PMOI was headed by his wife Maryam42.
Currently, a significant number of members of this organization have emigrated and live in Europe and the USA. It is noteworthy that in 2012 the United States excluded the organization from the list of terrorist organizations. According to the press service of the US State Department, the reason was the rejection of violence, the absence of new terrorist attacks and the group's assistance in the peaceful closure of the Ashraf camp in Iraq43.
Another terrorist organization whose ideology combined Shiism and socialism was the Forkan group. It owes its name to the Surah of the Quran "Al-Furqan" ("The distinction [between truth and falsehood]"). The organization was founded in 1976 by a former student Akbar Gudarzi, a native of Lourestan province44. Gudarzi believed that Shiism implied full equality of people, while he had a negative attitude towards the clergy and large merchants. He also had a negative attitude towards liberalism and Marxism45.
Forkan began its terrorist acts in 1979. One of the first victims of the group was the first chief of staff of the Iranian army, appointed after the Islamic Revolution, General Mohammad Gharani. He was murdered on April 23, 1979 in his home46. The organization also claimed responsibility for the murders of the leading thinker of the Islamic movement and the head of the Council of the Islamic Revolution, Mortaza Motakhhari, TV presenter Said Behbehani, the head of the Qasr prison, Mehdi Araghi, Khomeini's representative in Tabriz, Ali Kazi Tabatabai. All these murders were committed in 1979. In total, about 20 terrorist actions of this group have achieved their goal47.
On June 27, 1981, an attempt was made on Ayatollah Seyed Ali Khamenei. At that time, Ayatollah Khamenei was Imam Khomeini's representative in the Supreme Defense Council. During Khamenei's speech, an explosion occurred in the south of Tehran, but the ayatollah remained alive48. The assassination attempt on Khamenei was the last terrorist action carried out on behalf of Forkan. It is noteworthy that even before the terrorist attack, on January 18, 1980, Gudarzi and his supporters were arrested. And on June 3, 1980, the leader of Forkan and his associates were shot on charges of terrorism. Several dozen people received long prison terms. The investigation concluded that the perpetrator of the assassination attempt on Ayatollah Khamenei was Javad Gadiri, a member of the PMOI49. There is a version that there was a connection between the two terrorist organizations, and Forkan was the combat wing of the "People's
Mujahideen Organization of Iran50."
* * *
Summing up, it is worth noting that the synthesis of Islam and socialism by Ali Shariati or, in fact, the left-wing ideas on the structure of Iran's political life, which were expressed by Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani, turned out to be unclaimed by the Iranian leadership after the Islamic Revolution. The negative attitude of the authorities towards leftist ideologies was also intensified due to the fact that Islamic groups with leftist views, after the overthrow of the Shah, began fighting against the Islamic republic.
Notes
1 Lorentz J.H. Historical Dictionary of Iran. Second Edition. The Scarecrow
Press, Inc., Lanham, 2007. - P. 351. 2. Lorenz J.H. Historical Dictionary of Iran. Second edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., Lanham, 2007. - P. 217.
3. Mohammad Mosaddegh (1882-1967) - democratically elected Prime Minister of Iran from 1951 to 1953, who tried to carry out progressive reforms, including the nationalization of the oil and gas sector, for which he was overthrown as a result of a coup organized by the special services of the United States and Great Britain (operation Ajax) / Wikipedia. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaddegh,_ Mohammad (accessed: 08/20/2022).
41 Lorentz J.H. Historical Dictionary of Iran. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., Lanham, 2007. - P. 217.
5. Hiro D. Iran under the ayatollahs. - L., Melbourne and Henley:Routledge A. Kegan Paul, 1985. P. 63. Cit. by: Shuvalova N.B. The Islamic Revolution in Iran: prerequisites, features, prospects// Social sciences and humanities. Domestic and foreign literature. Ser. 9: Oriental Studies and African Studies. -2001. - No. 3. - P. 113.
6. Iranian Revolution: Causes, Events, and Effects // WorldAtlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-iranian-islamic-revolution-1978-1979.html (accessed: 08/20/2022).
7. Ali Shariati (1933-1977) - an Iranian leftist sociologist and revolutionary, one of the most famous and influential sociologists of religion. He is known as one of the most original and talented Iranian thinkers of the twentieth century, and as one of the ideologists of the Islamic Revolution//Wikipedia https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/fflapMaTM ,_Ali (accessed: 08/22/2022).
8. The Movement for Freedom of Iran is an Iranian democratic political party founded in 1961. It is the oldest party operating in Iran// Wikipedia. https/ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehzat_Azadi (publication date: 08/20/2022).
9 Abrahamyan E. Ali Shariati: The ideologist of the Iranian Revolution// Middle East Research and information project. - https://merip.org/1982/ 01/ali-shariati-ideologue-of-the-theIranian revolution/ (accessed: 08.20.2022).
10. Lorentz J.H. Historical Dictionary of Iran. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., Lanham, 2007. -P. 303.
11 Shariati A. "Red Shiism: The Religion of Martyrdom. Black Shiism: The Religion of Mourning"; (Translated from English by Yezhova A.) // Jemal G. Islamic intellectual initiative in the XX century. M. 2005. - P. 261-262.
12. Michael D.V. "Red Shiism" Ali Shariati: philosophy and the Islamic revolution in Iran // Social and Humanitarian Sciences. Domestic and foreign literature. Ser. 9: Oriental Studies and African Studies. - 2021. -No. 3. - P. 57.
13. Kuznetsov A. Sunni-Shiite contradictions in the Context of the Geopolitics of the Middle East region (1979-2016). Moscow, 2021. - P. 25.
14. Main K. Decoding political Islam: Uneven and Combined Development and AliShariati& #39; s Political Thought // International Relations and Non-Western Thought. Palgrave, 2012. - P. 116.
15 The Islamic Revolution in Iran. "Red sector" // Military review. - 2015. // topwar.ru/72007-islamskaya-revolyuciya-v-irane-krasnyy-sektor.html (accessed: 08.20.2022).
16. Abrahamyan E. Ali Shariati: Ideologue of the Iranian Revolution // Middle East Research and Information Project. https://merip.org/1982/01/ali-shariati-ideologue-of-the -iranian-revolution/ (accessed: 08/20/2022).
17. Ali Shariati // Ali Shariati: Fundamentalist Islamist, Marxist Ideologist and Sufi Mystic. - https://aliseriati.com/kitaplar. php?Makale_id=25&Kat_id=16 (accessed: 08/20/2022).
18. Seyed Mahmoud Elayi Taleghani (1911-1979) — Ayatollah, prominent Iranian theologian, public and religious figure, Khomeini's colleague in the Islamic Revolution//Wikipedia. - https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talegani, Mahmoud (accessed: 08/20/2022).
19. Seyid Ruhollah Mostafavi Mousavi Khomeini (1902-1989) - an Iranian religious, spiritual, state and political figure, Grand Ayatollah, leader of the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran. The supreme leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989 // Wikipedia. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khomeini,Ruhalla (accessed: 08/20/2022).
2°. The Islamic Revolution in Iran. "Red sector" // Military review. - 2015. https://topwar.ru/72007-islamskaya-revolyuciya-v-irane-krasnyy-sektor.html (accessed: 08/20/2022).
21. Mehdi Bazargan (1907-1995) - an Iranian statesman and politician, the first Prime Minister of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Having headed the provisional revolutionary government in 1979, he worked in this post for only nine months, resigning in protest at the seizure of the US embassy and the inability of his government to prevent it, as well as because of disagreement with the policy of violence, conducted by Ayatollah Khomeini and his supporters. //Wikipedia. - https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Bazargan, Mehdi (accessed: 08/20/2022).
22. Lorenz J.H. Historical Dictionary of Iran. Second edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., Lanham, 2007. - P. 325.
23 Taleghani, Syed Mahmoud //The Islamic Revolution of 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. - https://iran1979.ru/taleghani-seyed-mahmud/ (accessed: 08/20/2022).
24s Ayatollah Taleghani Backs Away From a Showdown with Khomeini // The New York Times, 04/20/1979. - https://www.nytimes.com/ 1979/04/20/archives/ayatollah-taleghani-backs-away-from-a-showdown-with-khomeini-eyes.html (accessed: 08/20/2022).
25. Peykar (Persian. Struggle), an acronym for the Organization of the Struggle for the Freedom of the Working Class is an Iranian left—wing guerrilla organization, sometimes referred to as Marxist or People's Mujahideen.
Broke away in 1975 from the Organization of the Mujahideen of the Iranian people and took a more radical position on Islam. By the mid-1980s, it ceased to exist as an independent political force / / Wikipedia. -https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peycar (accessed: 08/20/2022).
26 Ayatollah Who Must Be Reckoned With // New York Times, 04/19/1979. https://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/19/archives/an-ayatollah-who-must-be-reckoned-with-mahmoud-taleghani-man-in-the.html (accessed: 08/20/2022).
27. Avdeev G.P. The life and work of Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani (19111979). Abstract of the dissertation for the PhD (History) degree. M. 1988. - P. 19.
28. An Ayatollah Who Must Be Reckoned With // The New York Times, 19.04.1979. https://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/19/archives/an-ayatollah-who-must-be-reckoned-with-mahmoud-taleghani-man-in-the.html (accessed: 20.08.2022).
29. An Ayatollah Who Must Be Reckoned With // The New York Times, 19.04.1979. https://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/19/archives/an-ayatollah-who-must-be-reckoned-with-mahmoud-taleghani-man-in-the.html (accessed: 20.08.2022).
3°. Avdeev G.P. The life and work of Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani (1911-1979). Abstract of the dissertation for the PhD (History) degree. M. 1988. - P. 19.
31. Avdeev G.P. Some conceptual views of Ayatollah Taleghani on the essence of Islamic power // Iran: Islam and power. M., 2001. - P. 280.
32. Avdeev G.P. Some conceptual views of Ayatollah Taleghani on the essence of Islamic power // Iran: Islam and power. M., 2001. - P. 280.
33 Organization of the Mujahideen of the Iranian people. / / The Islamic Revolution of 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/ organizaciya-modzhaxedov-iranskogo-naroda/ (accessed: 08/20/2022).
341 Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK or MKO) // GlobalSecurity.org. -https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/ mek.htm (date of application: 20.08.2022).
35. Rajavi, Masood / / The Islamic Revolution of 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow https://iran1979.ru/radzhavi-masud / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
36. Organization of Mujahideen-i-Khalq (MEK or MKO)// GlobalSecurity.org. -https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/mek.htm (accessed: 20.08.2022)
37. Beheshti Martyr Museum in Tehran // IQNA. / https://iqna.ir/en/ news/3475080/martyr-beheshti-museum-in-tehran (accessed: 08/20/2022).
38. Anderson S., Sloan S. Historical Dictionary of Terrorism. Third edition. TheScarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, 2009. - P. 451.
39. Iranian Mujahideen are excluded from the list of terrorist organizations // RIA Novosti. - 29.09.2012. https://ria.ru/20120929/761715500.html / (accessed: 20.08.2022).
40 Organization of Mujahideen-i-Khalq (MEK or MKO)//Global Security.org. -https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/mek.htm (accessed: 20.08.2022)
41. Organization of the Mujahideen of the Iranian people / / The Islamic Revolution of 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/organizaciya-modzhaxedov-iranskogo-naroda / (accessed: 20.08.2022).
42. Anderson S., Sloan S. Historical Dictionary of Terrorism. Third Edition. TheScarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, 2009. - P. 454.
43. Iranian Mujahideen are excluded from the list of terrorist organizations // RIA Novosti. - 29.09.2012. https://ria.ru/20120929/761715500.html / (accessed: 20.08.2022).
44 "Forkan" / / Islamic Revolution 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/forgan / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
45. "Forkan" // Islamic Revolution 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/forgan / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
46. Garani, Mohammad-Wali // Islamic Revolution 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/garani-moxammad-vali / (accessed: 08/20/2022)
47. "Forkan" // Islamic Revolution 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. -https://iran1979.ru/forgan / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
48 What was the "gift of terrorists" to the Islamic Republic? // Press-TV. -06/28/2021.https://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2021/06/28/661043/Islamic-Republic-Terrorist-Gift-Forqan (accessed: 08/20/2022).
49. Was Forkan Group a Military Branch of the MKO//Habilian. - 12.05.2020 https://www.habilian.ir/en/202005123988/articles/was-forqan-group-a-military-branch-of-the - mko.html (accessed: 08/20/2022).
5°. Was Fokqan Group a Military Branch of the MKO? // Habilian. -12.05.2020. https://www.habilian.ir/en/202005123988/articles/was-forqan-group-a-military-branch-of-the-mko.html (accessed: 20.08.2022).
References
1. Avdeev G.P. Some conceptual views of Ayatollah Taleghani on the essence of Islamic power // Iran: Islam and power. M., 2001. - P. 280.
2. Avdeev G.P. The life and work of Ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani (1911-1979). Abstract of the dissertation for the PhD (History) degree. M. 1988. - P. 19.
3. Garani, Mohammad Wali / / The Islamic Revolution of 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/garani-moxammad-vali / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
4. Iranian Mujahideen are excluded from the list of terrorist organizations // RIA News. - 09.29.2012. https://ria.ru/20120929/761715500.htm! / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
5. The Islamic Revolution in Iran. "Red Sector" // Military review. - 2015. https://topwar.ru/72007-islamskaya-revolyuciya-v-irane-krasnyy-sektor.html (accessed: 08/20/2022).
6. Kuznetsov A. A. Sunni-Shiite contradictions in the context of the geopolitics of the Middle East region (1979-2016). M., 2021. - P. 352.
7. Mikhel D.V. "Red Shiism" by Ali Shariati: philosophy and the Islamic revolution in Iran // Social and Humanitarian sciences. Domestic and foreign literature. Ser. 9: Oriental Studies and African Studies. - 2021. -No. 3. - P. 48-66.
8. People's Mujahideen Organization of Iran // Islamic Revolution 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/organizaciya-modzhaxedov-iranskogo-naroda / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
9. Rajavi, Masud // Islamic Revolution 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/radzhavi-masud / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
10. Taleghani, Syed Mahmud //Islamic Revolution 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/taleghani-seyed-mahmud / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
11. "Forkan" // Islamic Revolution 1979. Yesterday. Today. Tomorrow. https://iran1979.ru/Forkan / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
12. Shariati A. "Red Shiism: the Religion of Martyrdom. Black Shiism: The Religion of Mourning" (Translated from English by Yezhova A.) // Jemal G. Islamic intellectual initiative in the twentieth century. M. 2005. - P. 259-266.
13. Abrhamian E. Ali Shariati: Ideologue of the Iranian Revolution // Middle East Scientific and Information Project. https://merip.org/1982/01/ali-shariati-ideologue-of-the-iranian-revolution / (accessed: 08/20/2022).
14. Ali Shariati // Ali Shariati: Islamic Fundamentalist, Marxist Ideologist and Sufi Mystic. https://aliseriati.com/kitaplar.php?Makale_id=25 andkat_id=16
15. An Ayatollah Who Must Be Reckoned With // The New York Times, 04/19/1979. https://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/19/archives/an-ayatollah-who-must-be-reckoned-with-mahmoud-taleghani-man-in-the.html( date of application: 08/20/2022).
16. Anderson S., Sloan S. Historical Dictionary of Terrorism. Third edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, 2009. - P. 800.
17. Ayatollah Taleghani Backs Away From a Showdown with Khomeini // The New York Times, 04.20.1979. https://www.nytimes.com/1979/ 04/20/archives/ayatollah-taleghani-backs-away-from-a-showdown-with-khomeini-eyes.html (accessed: 20.08.2022).
18. Hiro D. Iran under the ayatollahs. - L., Melbourne and Henley: Routledge a. Kegan Paul, 1985. P. 63. Cit. by: Shuvalova N.B. The Islamic Revolution in
Iran: prerequisites, features, prospects/ / Social sciences and humanities. Domestic and foreign literature. Ser. 9: Oriental Studies and African Studies. -2001. - № 3. - P.109-129.
19. Iranian Revolution: Causes, Events, and Effects // WorldAtlas. - Access mode: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-iranian-islamic-revolution-1978-1979.html (accessed: 08/20/2022).
20. Lorentz J.H. Historical Dictionary of Iran. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., Lanham, 2007. - P. 479.
21. Martyr Beheshti Museum in Tehran // IQNA. https://iqna.ir/en/news/ 3475080/martyr-beheshti-museum-in-tehran (accessed: 08/20/2022).
22. Matin K. Decoding political Islam: Uneven and Combined Development and Ali Shariati's Political Thought//International Relations and Non-Western Thought. Palgrave, 2012. - P. 108-124.
23. Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK or MKO) // GlobalSecurity.org https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/mek.htm (accessed: 08/20/2022).
24. Was Forqan Group a Military Branch of the MKO? // Habilian. - 12.05.2020. https://www.habilian.ir/en/202005123988/articles/was-forqan-group-a-military-branch-of-the-mko.html (accessed: 08/20/2022).
25. What was the 'terrorists gift' to the Islamic Republic? / / Press-TV. -28.06.2021. https://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2021/06/28/661043/Islamic-Republic-Terrorist-Gift-Forqan- (accessed: 08/20/2022).
Received: 07.09.22.
Accepted for publication: 29.09.22.
