10IRSTI 03.20
Soviet childhood in schools and boarding schools in Kazakhstan during the War (1941-1945)
Zauresh G. Saktaganova* Zhanara K. Abdukarimova
Karaganda Buketov University, Karaganda, Kazakhstan
*Corresponding author: [email protected] https://orcid.org/: 0000-0002-5881-482X https://orcid.Org/:0000-0002-1114-6887 DOI: 10.32523/2616-7255-2022-141-4-102-120
Abstract. The article deals with the issues of organizing the education of Soviet children in schools and boarding schools of the Kazakh SSR during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945). On the basis of data from archival documents and materials from oral sources, the authors analyze the life of Soviet Kazakhstan schoolchildren during the war years. The authors used materials from the funds of the archives of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation. Archival documents show the real situation in Soviet schools and boarding schools, and interview materials taken from "children of the war" supplement the study with memories of participants in the events of the war years. The authors, using the data of a number of regions of Kazakhstan as an example, show the changes that have occurred in the school system, one of them was a decrease in the number of schoolchildren during the war years. The reasons for the change in the number of students, especially in high school, among the girls of Kazakh schools are also being investigated. On the basis of statistical data, the article studies the problems of organizing schoolchildren's education in boarding schools, as well as the role of boarding school for the implementation of the general education program for remote settlements of the republic. Although domestic historical science has a number of studies on the problems of Kazakh schools during the war years, the history of the childhood of Kazakh children of the war years has not yet become the object of special study.
Keywords: children; Soviet childhood; school; boarding school; evacuation; vacations; Karaganda region; Great Patriotic War.
Received 01.08. 2022. Revised 05.08.2022. Accepted 15.09. 2022. Available online 30.12.2022. For citation:
Saktaganova Z.G., Abdukarimova Zh.K. Soviet childhood in schools and boarding schools in Kazakhstan during the War (1941-1945) //Bulletin of the L.N. Gumilyov ENU. Historical sciences. Philosophy. Religion Series. 2022. - Vol. 141. - №. 4. - P. 102-120.. DOI: 10.32523/2616-7255-2022-1414-102-120. Для цитирования:
Сактаганова З.Г., Абдукаримова Ж.К. Советское детство в школах и интернатах Казахстана в годы войны (1941-1945 гг.) // Вестник ЕНУ им. Л. Гумилева Серия: Исторические науки. Философия. Религиоведение. - 2022. - Т. 141. - №. 4. - С 102-120. DOI: 10.32523/2616-7255-2022-141-4102-120.
Introduction
With the outbreak of war, the emphasis in schooling was placed on the military-physical and labor training of students. On September 7 and 17, 1941, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Council of People>s Commissars of the USSR issued directives on the labor education of pioneers and schoolchildren and on strengthening the military and physical training of students in grades 8-10 of secondary school. A large amount of time was devoted to military training of high school students; during the summer holidays, military school camps were organized with enhanced physical training. It was necessary to give schoolchildren not only basic military training, but also to strengthen the patriotic education of young people. Boys and girls were trained in various military specialties - radio operators, nurses, skiers, etc. (Gender Aspects of the Great Patriotic War in Kazakhstan and Russia: macro and micro levels, 2020: 214).
Due to the massive participation of schoolchildren and teachers in harvesting, classes in schools almost everywhere began 2030 days later. In total, 261,000 schoolchildren and 12,000 teachers took part in the 1941 harvest (Kazakhstan during the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union 1941-1945, 1964). The introduction of a course on the basics of agriculture in schools in the first year of the war was considered as an element of the military-patriotic education of young people, and the lag behind the main school curriculum and a decrease in study time in September was compensated by independent analysis of the curriculum by schoolchildren and additional classes in the summer by reducing vacations (N.A. Kurchanova, 2006).
Decree of the Council of People>s Commissars of the USSR No. 789 of May 31, 1943 introduced separate education for boys and girls from the 1943-1944 school year. One of the factors in making this decision was that the physiology of boys and girls is different, and therefore, gender must be taken into account in training in order to prepare children for future practical activities. In essence, school preparation was not divorced
from real life, students in the senior classes could decide on their future profession, training was profile-oriented, which, in our opinion, is a huge plus for schoolchildren of that period.
The introduction of separate education for boys and girls in schools during the war years was aimed primarily at specializing in the training of students, at increasing the hours of training in «male» and «female» disciplines, taking into account, first of all, the difference in physiology by gender. Initially, the practice of separate education was introduced in the primary grades and in the classroom in pre-conscription military training, and then in middle and high schools (Gender Aspects of the Great Patriotic War in Kazakhstan and Russia: macro and micro levels, 2020: 215). People>s Commissariat for Education believed at that time that separate education contributed to the early choice of a working profession by young men and women even at the stage of studying at school.
Labor education, along with military training, was an important part of the education of older students. Theoretical and practical training of students for work on agricultural machinery was carried out, in summer and autumn the children were taken to agricultural work. Starting from the eighth grade, schoolchildren worked on machine tools, military affairs were taught to boys. Girls taught housekeeping, and mastered first aid skills (M.A. Ryblova, etc., 2015: 232).
Materials and methods
Children and childhood is an interdisciplinary field of study under which comparison of various areas of humanitarian knowledge expands the idea of childhood as a phenomenon or construct that changes over time and culture. Apart from history, this includes pedagogy, psychology, historical anthropology, cultural studies and sociology, and juvenology. A number of approaches in the humanities make children>s memory, the mechanisms of its transformation, memorative practices, etc., an object of study. A number of scientific methods were used in the articles. Along with general scientific methods
ВЕСТНИК Евразийского национального университета имени Л.Н. Гумилева. № 4(141)/2022 103
Серия Исторические науки. Философия. Религиоведение
(comparative analysis and synthesis, system-functional, deduction and induction, component method, structural-functional method, etc.), natural scientific methods were used. For example, mathematical, quantitative and statistical methods were used when analyzing statistical data etc. Special-historical methods (problematic-chronological, comparative-
historical, historical-typological, retrospective, historical-genetic, historical-biographical, etc.) became the main methodological tools.
In particular, the comparative historical method allows identifying the characteristics of the life of school-age children in the regions of Kazakhstan, as well as regional differences in the living conditions of children. The historical-biographical method allows delving into the history of the child during the war years.
One of the most important methods used in the process of writing the article was the method of oral history. According to this method it became possible to study the history of children>s everyday life. On the basis of oral materials obtained in the process of interviewing people who were children during the war years it was possible to obtain interesting information on the subject of the study. In-depth interviewing contributed to the restoration of a complete picture of the life history of children in cities and rural areas and the reconstruction of children>s everyday life. Memories and interviews enrich knowledge, complement narrative sources and contribute to emotional perception and presentation of a historical picture of childhood in the Soviet era. The use of a comparative analysis of oral sources and archival data makes it possible to obtain verified information and the manifestation of the function of representativeness of the source.
The author's used materials from the funds of three Kazakhstan and two Russian archives: the Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Archive of the President of the Republic, the State Archive of the Karaganda Region, the State Archive of the Russian Federation, the Russian State Archive of SocioPolitical History. As well as interview materials were taken from the "children of war".
Discussion
There is a noticeable shift in the study of childhood history, including the childhood of the war years, from the second half of the 1970s. This shift occurred due to the publication of the work of F. Aries «Child and family life under the old order», in which the author singled out childhood as a separate subject of study. F. Aries' works marked the beginning of a research interest in the history of children and childhood on the part of historians, anthropologists, psychologists, sociologists, etc. The silent world of childhood began to open up and began to speak with its sources: written, oral, visual, etc. (Aries F., 1999).
The study of Soviet childhood is impossible without referring to such an important component of childhood as school. A number of works by Soviet researchers are devoted to the research of the Soviet school in the framework of history and pedagogy. The key issues addressed by Soviet authors were child heroism at the front and in the rear, labor and military physical education, and the activities of pioneer organizations (Essays on the history of the Great Patriotic War 19411945, 1955; History of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union 1941-1945: in 6 volumes, v. 2, 1981; M.G. Khitorian, 1976; On the history of the pioneer organization of Western Kazakhstan: 1923-1958, 1958; B.I. Mukanova, 1970; V.G. Khrapchenko, 1984).
A number of works by post-Soviet researchers are devoted to the history of the Soviet school. The history and pedagogy of Soviet military childhood is studied in the works of A.A. Andreev, V.L. Ershov, A.V. Tokarev, E.V. Protasova, N.P. Shchetin and others (A.A. Andreev, V.L. Ershov, 2013; A.V. Tokarev, 2017; E.V. Protasova, 2017; R.S. Serebryany, O.V. Yaremchuk, 2021). One of the works devoted to children and the education system is the work of A.A. Vashchenko "Education and human resources of Russia in the XX century" (A.A. Vashchenko, 2007). The object of the author>s research is the education system, its reforms, the restoration of schools and other educational institutions after the war. Since the school is one of the most important components of the regulated space of the Soviet child. This
work is of interest, as it contains important factual material related to the organization of school education in the period under our consideration.
Particular attention of foreign researchers of Soviet military childhood is devoted to the Soviet school as a place of education and propaganda. K. Kelly believes that the Soviet cloudless childhood was more of a utopia, propaganda, suggestion. In fact, the needs of children were often neglected at the state and local level, children>s institutions were funded on a residual basis, the living conditions of children from orphanages were substandard, violence from caregivers and peers was common, not to mention hunger and lack of basic clothing and shoes (K. Kelly, 2003, 2007, 2008). O. Kucherenko argues that the violent determination of children to take part in the conflict (World War II) can only be understood in the context of their upbringing. The main principles of socialization
are analyzed: family, school, literature and mass media, theater and cinema, communist youth organizations. Preference of collective priorities to personal interests and a sense of self-sacrifice for the common good are among the most important values instilled in Soviet children. (O. Kucherenko, 2011). Childhood, including the Soviet childhood of the war years, became the object of research by a number of foreign researchers, such as deGraffenried, J.K. Frierson, C.A. E. White (deGraffenried J.K., 2014; Frierson C.A., 2015, E. White, 2020).
The issues of studying Soviet childhood during the war years in Russian historiography are just beginning to be developed. In modern Kazakh historiography there are a number of works devoted to the Soviet school during the war years. Z.G. Saktaganova, R.M. Zhumashev, R.S. Zharkynbaeva, V.S. Eshpanov and other researchers raise issues of reducing the number
Table 1. Information on the number of secondary schools for 3 school years by regions of the Kazakh SSR
Region 1940-1941 school year 1941-1942 school year 1942-1943 school year
number of schools number of schools number of schools
total of them Kazakh % total of them Kazakh % total of them Kazakh %
Alma-Ata 64 17 26,6 68 14 20,6 725 14 1,9
Akmola 49 10 20,4 54 10 18,5 55 8 15,4
Aktobe 38 14 36,8 41 14 34,1 40 14 35
East Kazakhstan 64 11 17,2 66 10 15,2 67 8 11,9
Guryev 41 19 46,3 41 19 46,3 42 18 42,9
Jambul 31 8 25,8 36 10 27,8 37 6 42,9
West-Kazakhstan 44 15 34,1 47 16 34 47 15 31,9
Kyzyl-Orda 29 13 44,8 30 10 33,3 34 12 35,3
Karaganda 44 9 20 44 8 18,2 40 5 12,5
Kustanay 41 8 19,5 46 9 19,6 47 7 14,9
Pavlodar 36 10 27,8 40 13 32,2 43 10 23,3
North Kazakhstan 46 11 23,9 51 10 19,6 53 9 17
Semipalatinsk 39 12 30,8 42 12 28,6 42 11 26,2
South Kazakhstan 50 9 18 58 12 20,7 59 12 20,3
Alma-Ata city 25 1 4 27 1 3,7 24 1 4,2
Total 641 167 26 691 168 24,3 702 150 21,4
Total students 1142618 100 930076 100% 759139 100
Note - Compiled on the basis of the source (Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 1692. Inventory 1. Case 626a: 9, 10)
of students during the war years, reducing the number of teachers, the problems of financing schools in the Kazakh SSR, children>s everyday life, including evacuated children (Z.G. Saktaganova, K.K., Abdrakhmanova 2019; R.S. Zharkynbayeva, etc., 2020; S.S. Sarsenbayeva, etc., 2015; R.M. Zhumashev, 2002; V.S. Eshpanov, 2018).
Results
During the war years, the number of students in primary, seven-year and secondary schools began to decrease throughout the republic. Table 1 shows data on the number of secondary Kazakh and other schools (grades 1-10) in the Kazakh SSR for three school years and the total number of students for this period.
According to Table 1, in almost all regions of the Kazakh SSR, there was an increase in the number of secondary schools, but the number of students began to decline: in the 1941-1942 school year - by 19%, in the 1942-1943 school year - by 33%. Kazakh schools in 1940-1943 accounted for an average of 23.6% of the total number of schools in the republic. Despite the martial law in the country, especially in the first years of the war, new schools were opened in most regions, but this did not apply to Kazakh schools, the number of which, on the contrary, generally decreased. The reason for the opening of new non-Kazakh schools (Polish, Ukrainian, Russian) was the arrival of evacuated children.
For the education of Polish children in 1943, 36 schools were opened, in which 4743 students studied, as well as 7 orphanages for 800 children and 4 kindergartens for 140 Polish children. In 1945, there were already 56 Polish schools in which 6124 students and 9 orphanages with 977 pupils studied (Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 1692. Inventory 1. Case 306: 18.). In the 1940-1941 school year in the Kazakh SSR there were 5289 elementary schools with 29737 students, 1770 seven-year schools with 418538 students, 698 secondary schools with 419137 students, and 33 other schools with 3375 students. Total for all types of schools - 7790 with the number of students 1138187 people. In the
1945-1946 school year, there were 5437 primary schools in the Kazakh SSR with 251585 students, seven-year schools with 250741 students, 714 secondary schools with 288597 students, and 10 other schools with 1135 students. Total for all types of schools - 7869 with the number of students 792058 people. (National Economy of the Kazakh SSR: Stat. Collection, 1957: 286-287). In the pre-war period, the number of schools was 1% less than in the post-war period, but the number of students was 30% higher.
The number of students in the primery school, seven-year and high schools dropped sharply during the war years. The reasons why the children did not attend school were as follows: they worked in agriculture, looked after children of preschool age, and difficult living conditions. For example, from the memoirs of Vera Grigorievna Shcheblykina: "I went to school late, at 9 or 10 years old. There was nothing to go, there were no clothes. So maybe I would have stayed at home, if not for my mother>s boss, the head of the children>s tuberculosis sanatorium Rekina Marya Ilyinichna. She suggested that my mother take clothes from the sanatorium and go to school in them. And if there is an audit, we will return it to its place, and Vera (that is, me) is not like school for several days. Because before the state used to give out clothes" (Zh. K. Abdukarimova, Shcheblykina Vera Grigorievna: interview: shorthand, 2021). Syzdykov Token, recalling his childhood, says that "he went to school late, at the age of 8-9, it was not before school, he had to work a lot. Sometimes they simply didn't let us in if there were a lot of household or collective farm chores. Our school was far away, 5-6 km from the village, we had to walk. There were 10 of us students and 1 teacher" (Zh. K. Abdukarimova, Syzdykov T.: interview: shorthand, 2022).
Schools of the Kazakh SSR faced serious financial difficulties during the war. By August 1, 1943, only 30% of school buildings were repaired, 20% of fuel was procured, only 22% of school equipment was repaired, and 16% of its production was completed. The lack of many types of food, material difficulties in everyday life, the lack of children>s clothing and footwear led to a large dropout of students from schools in
the republic. So, on October 21, 1941, the People>s Commissariat of Education in its resolution stated that 4923 children were not studying in the Guryev region, 1419 in South Kazakhstan, 530 in Semipalatinsk, 885 in Kustanay, and 350 in the city of Alma-Ata (Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 1692. Inventory 1. Case 460: 3). In total, during the first school year during the war, more than 30,000 people left secondary and incomplete secondary schools, 28,000 went to factory schools or to production. In the coming years, students also left schools en masse. So, in the 1942-1943 school year, 175970 people stopped their education, in the 1943-1944 school year - 51102 people. During the war years, more than 390,000 people stopped studying in schools, which amounted to 34.2% of all schoolchildren. Most often, students left school in grades 1-4. In the certificate on the state of universal education in the Kazakh SSR, following the results of the 1942-1943 school years, it is written that at the beginning of the school year, 412,123 people attended school, or 93.1% of all children aged 8-11, 232,797 or 95.7% of children aged 12-15 and 41123 students in grades 8-10. At the end of the school year, more than 53% of children in primary grades left school, more than 40% of children in grades 5-7 (State Archive of the Russian Federation, File 1562. Inventory 17. Case 935: 13). Most high school students who stopped studying were transferred to factory training schools and vocational schools. Thus, the 19411942, 1942-1943, 1943-1944 school years turned out to be the most critical, when every third child did not have the opportunity to go to school.
In the 1942-1943 school year in the Kazakh SSR, the contingent of Kazakh students in grades 8, 9 and 10 of Kazakh schools and students in non-Kazakh schools was 5480 people, of which 351 people were in 10 grades (in the 19411942 school year - 969 people). The number of schools, compared with the last school year, has decreased from 168 to 150, and the number of students was only 50% of last year>s contingent. The occupancy of the senior classes of Kazakh schools was extremely low, only 8-12 people each, which most often served as the reason for the curtailment of senior classes in schools. As
for the girls of Kazakh schools of the 10th grade, in the 1941-1942 school year there were only 25% of them. The number of graduates of Kazakh schools in all regions did not exceed 1/6, and in some regions there were no graduation classes at all (Aktobe, Dzhambul, Karaganda, Kzyl-Orda, Kustanay, Pavlodar, South Kazakhstan, Alma-Ata). One of the reasons for this state of senior classes in Kazakh secondary schools was the circumstances of the material order (Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 1692. Inventory 1. Case 720: 42, 44).
Kazakh schools in the rural areas of the KazSSR found themselves in the most difficult situation. So, out of 175,970 children who stopped their education in 1942-1943. 97,518 people, 55.4% were Kazakh students (Russian State Archive of SocioPolitical History, File 17. Inventory 8. Case 184: 34). During the war years, the chain of schools of all types (primary, seven-year, secondary) was reduced by 612 units, of which 520 schools were with the Kazakh language of instruction. Of these 520 schools, 297 became schools with Russian, Ukrainian and Polish as the language of instruction. After all, a significant part of the evacuated population was located in rural areas, where the Kazakhs were the main segment. Due to reorganization, lack of funding and lack of teaching staff in many auls, Kazakh schools were closed. There were from 5 to 11 schools with operating boarding schools per 100 villages, the scattered and remoteness of settlements, the impossibility of bringing children to schools led to such a significant reduction in students in rural areas. In total, in the 1943-1944 school year, the number of Kazakh students decreased by 2 times compared to the 1940-1941 school year (Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, File 17. Inventory 8. Case 184: 34).
Let us give an example for one school year in terms of the number of Kazakh schools in the republic and the contingent of senior classes in them (8, 9, 10) and separately consider the number of girls who studied in the senior grades of the Kazakh school (table 2).
In total, in the 1942-1943 school year, 759,139 students studied in secondary schools in Kazakhstan, of which 5,478 (0.7%) people studied
Table 2. Information on the number of secondary schools and Kazakh students in grades 8-10 at the beginning of the 1942-1943 school year by region of the Kazakh SSR
Region 1940-1941 school year 1941-1942 school year 1942-1943 school year
number of schools number of schools number of schools
total kazakh % total kazakh % total kazakh %
Alma-Ata 64 17 26,6 68 14 20,6 725 14 1,9
Akmola 49 10 20,4 54 10 18,5 55 8 15,4
Aktobe 38 14 36,8 41 14 34,1 40 14 35
East Kazakhstan 64 11 17,2 66 10 15,2 67 8 11,9
Guryev 41 19 46,3 41 19 46,3 42 18 42,9
Jambul 31 8 25,8 36 10 27,8 37 6 42,9
West-Kazakhstan 44 15 34,1 47 16 34 47 15 31,9
Kyzyl-Orda 29 13 44,8 30 10 33,3 34 12 35,3
Karaganda 44 9 20 44 8 18,2 40 5 12,5
Kustanay 41 8 19,5 46 9 19,6 47 7 14,9
Pavlodar 36 10 27,8 40 13 32,2 43 10 23,3
North Kazakhstan 46 11 23,9 51 10 19,6 53 9 17
Semipalatinsk 39 12 30,8 42 12 28,6 42 11 26,2
South Kazakhstan 50 9 18 58 12 20,7 59 12 20,3
Alma-Ata city 25 1 4 27 1 3,7 24 1 4,2
Total 641 167 26 691 168 24,3 702 150 21,4
Total students 1142618 100 930076 100% 759139 100
Note - Compiled on the basis of the source (Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 1692. Inventory 1. Case 626a: 9)
in the senior classes of the Kazakh school. So, if in the 1940-1941 school year 419137 people studied in the senior classes of the secondary school, in the 1945-1946 school year - 250741 people, then 5478 students of the Kazakh secondary school could approximately account for only 2% of the total number of students (National Economy of the Kazakh SSR: stat. collection, 1957: 285). As for the class size, it was approximately 10-12 people in one class, that is, the Kazakh classes were small. Comparing the table data on the number of girls and boys in the senior classes in the regions of Kazakhstan, it is noticeable that the number of boys is definitely higher than the number of girls, and in the South Kazakhstan region, girls accounted for only 18% of the total number of senior students. In the Karaganda region, there were only 5 Kazakh schools with a
total contingent of 198 students, girls were also in the minority here - 41%.
One of the reasons for the decrease in the number of high school students was the introduction of paid education in high school, and since not every family had the financial opportunity to pay for schooling, young people simply stopped attending school and went to secondary specialized educational institutions. For example, Zagoruiko (Matveenko) Anna Korneevna, recalling 1943, says: "In 1943, the daily norm of bread was reduced, food products arrived with great interruptions. There were not enough workers in the city and all high school students were mobilized and assigned to different enterprises. In addition, a fee was introduced for the education of schoolchildren in high school, but we had no money. There was no question of
any study. I was sent to work at a garment factory that sewed uniforms for the soldiers of our army. Fourteen-fifteen-year-old teenagers worked next to me, but there were even twelve-year-old children". (Women of Kazakhstan during the Great Patriotic War: memories and interviews: collection of materials, 2020: 258-259).
Let us cite as an example the data for the Karaganda region, in which the number of high school students decreased sharply during the war years. In Karaganda in the 1940-1941 school year, 739 children studied in grade 8, 267 in grade 9, and 104 in grade 10. In the 1941-1942 school year, 374 children studied in grade 8, 140 in grade 9, and 10 class - 53; in the 1942-1943 school year, 134 children studied in the 8th grade, 54 in the 9th grade, and 3 in the 10th grade (Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 1692. Inventory 1. Case 720: 42, 44). The number of children enrolled in high school has dropped drastically. In the 1941-1942 school year, the number of students in the 8th grade decreased by 49.4%, in the 9th grade - by 47.6%, in the 10th grade - 49.4%, in the 1942-1943 school year, the number of students in the 8th grade decreased by 82%, 9 class - by 80%, class 10 - by 97.1%. In the region as a whole, there was a similar situation with the senior classes. These figures clearly demonstrate the situation that developed in schools in the senior classes during the war years.
Table 3 provides data on the number of schools and students for three school years in the Karaganda region.
Table 3. The number of schools and students in the Karaganda region in 1940-1941, 1942-1943, 1945-1946 school years
School year Number of schools/% Number of students/%
1940-1941 370/100 57233/100
1942-1943 330/89 29466/51
1945-1946 426/115 50484/88
Note - Compiled on the basis of the source (State archive of the Karaganda region, File 1. Inventory 2. Case 414: 25)
As can be seen from Table 3 in the Karaganda region during the war years, the number of all
types of schools decreased by 11%, and the number of students by 49%, almost twice. In the first post-war school year, the number of schools in the region, compared with the pre-war school year, increased by about 13%, but the number of students did not reach the pre-war level and decreased by 11%. After the end of the war, the material situation of the citizens of the USSR could not immediately improve, and for this reason, not all children had the opportunity to attend school.
One of the reasons for the decrease in the number of senior classes throughout the USSR was that after graduating from a seven-year school, many students went to railway, agricultural, repair and technical schools, and factory schools. In fact, the state stimulated the acquisition of working specialties on the basis of incomplete school education. One of these "working" forms of education was the system of factory training. She significantly helped orphans and those whose parents could not work. Factory training schools, as the lowest type of vocational school, operated from 1940 to 1963 on the basis of industrial enterprises and construction sites. These schools were accepted from the age of 14-16, students were fully supported by the state, received uniforms, meals and salaries (M.A. Ryblova, etc., 2015: 251). The existence of such a system of vocational training for young people was a good alternative for teenagers who did not complete high school, giving them the opportunity to get a working specialty and subsequent employment.
The processes of evacuation of the population also had an impact on the work of the education system. So, for example, in connection with the arrival of the evacuated and resettled population to the collective farms and state farms of the Nurinsk district of the Karaganda region, among which there were 235 school-age children who were not covered by education due to the lack of Russian classes in Kazakh schools. And in this regard, in September 1942, it was decided to open Russian classes in Kazakh elementary schools (Table 4).
Evacuated children must continue their schooling and in their native language. For
Table 4. Opening of Russian classes in the Kazakh elementary schools of the Nura region in the 1942-1943 school year
Settlement Classes Number of students
1 2 3
Collective farm "Ondrus" 1,2,3,4 33
Collective farm "Kok ozek" 1,2,3,4 25
Collective farm "named after Dzhambul" 1,2,3,4 16
Collective farm "named after May 1st" 1,2,3,4 33
Collective farm "Intumak" 1,2,3,4 16
2nd farm of the collective farm "Marzhankul" 1,2,3,4 19
Collective farm "Zhana Kurlys" 1,2 20
Total 26 162
Note - Compiled on the basis of the source (State archive of the Karaganda region, File 469. Inventory 2. Case 24: 62)
example, in the decision of the Karaganda Regional Council of Workers> Deputies "On the opening Ukrainian classes at the Incomplete Secondary School No. 16" is written: "In connection with the arrival at the disposal of the Karaganda region of the evacuated Ukrainian orphanage, with a contingent of students of 201 people, with a full teaching staff and provision with textbooks in Ukrainian, the Karaganda Regional Council of Workers' Deputies decided to open 5 Ukrainian classes at the incomplete secondary school No. 16 of the village of Kompaneysk, from there are 2 thirds, 1 fourth and 1 sixth and 1 fifth" (State archive of the Karaganda region, File 18. Inventory 1. Case 557: 50).
Another serious problem in teaching both in Kazakh and with other languages of instruction was the change in the leadership and teaching staff, it became much weaker, meanwhile, there was a practice of nominating teachers of Kazakh schools for other jobs (Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 1692. Inventary 1. Case 720: 42-44). The problem with teaching staff during the war years was very acute. Some teachers went to the front, some (mostly women) went to work in other higher-paid industries, because, working in the social sphere, they could not feed their families, being for the most part the only adult working person in the family. According to statistical collections, one can
present an approximate picture of the number of teachers for all types of schools in the KazSSR in 1940-1941 and 1945-1946 school years. In the 1940-1941 school year, 44,381 teachers worked in the republic, and after the end of the war in the 1945-1946 school year, this figure was 39,701, that is, the reduction was 4,680 people (11%) (National economy of the Kazakh SSR: statistical collection, 1957: 284) .
Despite the ongoing educational activities in schools, violations of discipline were quite frequent. For example, a student of secondary school No. 1 of the Leninsk district of the Karaganda region was convicted of hooliganism, a student of Balkhash secondary school No. 3 was convicted of theft. Being late for classes, going to the movies late, students being rude to teachers, and drinking alcohol were common. Measures of influence on students who violated discipline were: calls to the director, individual conversations between students and teachers, discussion of students> actions at class meetings, meetings of student committees, reprimands, and, as a last resort, expulsion from school. Except in cases of violation of the law, in which criminal liability was provided. So, for example, in the first quarter of the 1941-1942 school year, 36 people were expelled in the region, and the same number in the second quarter. Some schools, instead of excluding students, arranged for them
to work (State archive of the Karaganda region, File 1. Inventory 2. Case 414: 100).
Often school classes were made up of children of different ages, as there were some breaks in study, and the classes had to be formed anew. Sometimes students of grades 5-6 got married and dropped out of school simply because their age allowed them to start an independent adult life (State archive of the Karaganda region, File 1. Inventory 2. Case 414: 229). There was a case of the marriage of a 7th grade student Zhusupova and a 6th grade student Zhasbulatova of the Kazakh secondary school of the Dzhezkazgan region (State archive of the Karaganda region, File 1. Inventory 2. Case 414: 101). Since the children went to school from the age of 8, these students was 13 or 14 years old. Such cases were one of the reasons why girls did not go to high school.
There were facts when children left school without even finishing primary school. One of the residents of the village of Kainar Bulak, Karkaralinsky district, Karaganda region, Beibigali Nurdildina, with the outbreak of war, was forced to leave school after the third grade in order to help her parents in the household, look after her younger sisters and work on a collective farm. Despite the fact that her father did not go to the front, since he was already in adulthood, and her mother did not work due to constant illnesses, many adult responsibilities fell on Beibigali and, unfortunately, she did not graduate from school (Abdukarimova Zh. K. Beibigali N.: interview: shorthand, 2022).
The conditions of schoolchildren>s education are preserved in the memoirs of the children of the war. Sometimes there were no desks or chairs in schools, often they sat on the ground, there was no paper, no notebooks, no pencils. They wrote on pieces of newspapers with a pen. Such conditions in schools were not everywhere. For example, from the memoirs of Baklyuk L.M. -students of school No. 1 in Karaganda: "We had a good school, there were many teachers, there was military affairs, we marched on the street, there was really a steppe around the school, even camels walked, but the school was quite comfortable" (Abdukarimova Zh.K. Baklyuk
Lidia Maksimovna: interview: shorthand, 2021). Rural school in the village of Aksu-Ayuly from the memoirs of a student of the war years: "We are children of war. We really had a hard time. The school where we studied was good and big. Our headmaster lived at the school. I remember when the smell of food spread around the school, we all laughed and said that in the director>s room the milk was burnt or the baursaks were fried. Our school was heated with stoves. One oven heated two classes. During recess, when it was very cold, we liked to put our hands against the hot wall and warm ourselves. Study supplies: notebooks, inkwell, quill pen, we bought at the market. We didn>t wear school uniforms". (Women of Kazakhstan during the Great Patriotic War: memories and interviews: collection of materials, 2020: 217).
One of the problems in the implementation of the tasks of universal education was the lack of teaching staff. The call to the ranks of the Red Army of male teachers was reflected in the situation of Kazakh schools. At the beginning of 1942, 1545 teachers were missing in 13 regions of the Kazakh SSR, of which 1125 were in Kazakh schools. In total, during the war years, the number of Kazakh teachers in schools decreased by 9 thousand people and the unsatisfactory training of Kazakh teachers in the pre-war years became an obvious omission, when on January 1, 1941, they accounted for only 5.8% in the general pedagogical team (Itbaev N. M., 1975). During the war period, about 6,000 teachers arrived in the evacuation, and this could not significantly reduce the problem of an acute shortage of teachers. The State Planning Commission and the Council of People>s Commissars of the Republic reported that at the beginning of the 1944-1945 school year, with the need for 43,677 teachers, there were about 37,000 people, of which 1,300 worked outside their specialty, and 2,737 people were trained in short-term teacher training courses instead of 5,000. (Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 1479. Inventory 4. Case 894: 8). The increase in the number of Kazakh teachers allowed not only to reduce the acute shortage of teaching staff, but also contributed to their wider involvement in
the socio-political and economic life of society.
In the schools of the Karaganda region in the 1943-1944 school year, 1737 teachers worked. By the end of the third quarter, there was a shortage of 28 teachers, mostly in the upper grades, as a result of which certain subjects (chemistry, biology, mathematics, Kazakh language) were not taught in some schools. 175 teachers worked at that time not in their specialty in various institutions and enterprises of the region. To solve this problem, short-term courses for teachers were organized in Osakarovka, Karkaralinsk, Zhana-Arka districts and in Karaganda city. Course activities covered 190 people, including 130 Kazakhs (State archive of the Karaganda region, File 1. Inventory 2. Case 414: 100-116). In schools, children were provided with breakfasts, more often cold, less often hot. This has been a significant help for most families. From the memoirs of the children of the war: "But the main thing is that every day in schools they gave either a bun or a pie -regularly. They supported the children and, in addition, the families whose fathers died were given coupons after a certain period. We studied in three shifts: morning, afternoon and evening. And I went from Elshanka, if I have a coupon, then I came to the Loader>s House for lunch. They gave me soup and a piece of bread there, this is in addition to the cards. This is how we ate, went forever hungry". Schoolchildren often saved part of their breakfast and took it home to their younger brothers and sisters (Ryblova M.A., 2015: 232). The amount of food provided by the school was not always enough for all students, sometimes it was necessary to follow the order. Shcheblykina Vera Grigoryevna, who lived in the city of Karaganda near the Kirov mine, recalls: "We went to the school canteen every other day, or sometimes we go a week every other week" (Abdukarimova Zh.K. Shcheblykina Vera Grigoryevna: interview: trancript, 2021).
In some schools, there were no problems with catering for schoolchildren. A student of school No. 1 in Karaganda Baklyuk Lidia Maksimovna, recalling her school years, mentions that when she was in the 5th grade, "Every day the head of the class was given a pie with sugar sprinkles for the class, evenly cut into pieces, so tasty that
every day they were looking forward to when she would bring it" (Abdukarimova Zh.K. Altavets A.A.: interview: shorthand, 2021). Each settlement had its own food system in schools. If in cities children ate in school canteens, then in rural areas this was practically non-existent, and if there was, it was more than modest. The memories of the home front children left the most vivid impressions of school meals. "At school, we were always given a small piece of black sour bread, and then it seemed to me the most delicious in the world" (Women of Kazakhstan during the Great Patriotic War: memories and interviews: collection of materials, 2020: 212). "I remember very well how we were given bread the size of half a palm for a big break, and it seemed to us that there was nothing tastier than this bread in the world" (Women of Kazakhstan during the Great Patriotic War: memories and interviews: collection of materials, 2020: 212) .
The school played a key role in the upbringing of the younger generation. The state attached particular importance to the school, which both gave knowledge and protected from the negative influence of the street thanks to extracurricular activities (Koreniuk V.M., 2017: 68). Parents who did not have the physical ability to fully engage in the upbringing of their children shifted this entire function to the school. The school, especially the elementary school, replaced the family in matters of upbringing and personality formation. The Soviet school for decades to come brought up citizens adapted to the existing system.
Thus, the Soviet school continued its work, despite all the difficulties associated with the war. New schools were opened, including for evacuated children, reforms were carried out in education, and the continuous system of schooling was still working properly. The school was not only a place of education, but also a place of education, organized leisure activities, communication with teachers and peers.
One of the types of implementation of the universal education program was boarding schools for children from remote areas. Boarding schools played an important role in the implementation of general education, since not all remote villages had secondary schools, or
Table 5. The chain of boarding schools of the Kazakh SSR in the 1944-1945 school year.
№ Region name Budget boarding schools Public boarding schools Total contingent of boarding schools
Actually boarding schools Planned contingent Actual contingent Actually boarding schools Planned contingent Actual contingent According to plan Actually
1 Alma-Ata 30 800 1389 no data 400 no data no data no data
2 Alma-Ata 24 650 1115 12 150 430 800 1545
3 Aktobe 23 1200 1178 21 800 619 2000 1797
4 Aktobe no data 1050 no data no data 150 no data no data no data
5 Guryevsk no data 600 no data no data 150 no data no data no data
6 Jambul 26 700 1200 8 270 175 970 1375
7 West Kazakhstan 29 900 970 27 400 1137 1300 2107
8 Kyzyl-Orda no data 620 no data no data 280 no data no data no data
9 Karaganda 12 no data 500 4 50 150 400 650
10 Kokchetav no data 660 no data no data 150 no data no data no data
11 Kustanay 35 850 1500 70 150 2500 1000 4000
12 Pavlodar 500 760 150 400 650 1200
13 Semipalatinsk 25 850 1160 15 150 768 1000 1808
14 North Kazakhstan no data 650 no data no data 150 no data no data no data
15 Taldy-Kurgan 23 650 976 5 300 150 950 1126
16 South Kazakhstan 29 1870 1765 no data 300 no data no data 1126
17 Alma-Ata city no data 200 120 no data no data no data no data no data
Total 13000 4000
Note - Compiled on the basis of the source (Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 708. Inventory 1. Case 1532: 7-8, 26)
they could not always gather even small classes, and for one student they could not open a whole class, and for this reason children were sent to study in boarding schools where they could get a full education. Table 5 presents data for the 1944-1945 school year on the number of boarding schools in the Kazakh SSR.
This table does not provide complete data on the chain of boarding schools and the number of children studying in them in the Kazakh SSR, but even according to the available data, it can be concluded that almost all boarding schools in the regions were overcrowded. For example, for a large Karaganda region, with settlements
scattered over a long distance, 16 boarding schools were not enough.
Children from remote villages lived in boarding schools. For example, in Central Kazakhstan in the 1940-1941 school year there were 8 boarding schools (379 children), in the 1941-1942 school year there were already 10 boarding schools (424 children), of which: in the Leninsk region - 1, in Nurinsk - 1, in Kounradsk
- 2, in Shetsk - 4, in Telman - 1, in Karkaralinsk
- 1 (Zhalmagambetov E.A., 2014: 45). In the 19441945 school year, the number of boarding schools increased to 16. Boarding schools occupied rather modest adapted premises and very
ВЕСТНИК Евразийского национального университета имени Л.Н. Гумилева. № 4(141)/2022 113
Серия Исторические науки. Философия. Религиоведение
poor equipment. According to inspections, the sanitary condition of boarding schools was quite satisfactory in Kounrad and Shetsk districts. The good sanitary condition of the premises and the students themselves was in the Dolinka boarding school in the Telmansk district. Boarding schools were supplied both at the expense of the state and at the expense of the parents of the students. For example, only former orphans in the Karkaralinsk district were provided with funds for food from the state budget, the rest of the children received food at the expense of their parents. Great difficulties in catering for children studying in boarding schools were due to violations of food supplies by the Consumer Union (State archive of the Karaganda region, File 1. Inventory 2. Case 414: 3).
Boarding schools were opened at most Kazakh secondary schools, where mainly former pupils of orphanages and materially needy students were accepted - orphans. The difficult material conditions of the boarding school pupils led them to leave school, go to work or enter vocational schools, factory training schools, etc. Pupils were not fully provided with shoes, clothes, bedding. For example, out of 40 boarding schools in the Shevchenko district of the Guryev region, half were not provided with shoes, one third did not have outerwear; in the Abai district of the Semipalatinsk region, there were only 24 blankets for 40 boarding schools, former pupils of orphanages, in the Aksuat boarding school there were only 37 blankets for 64 pupils, one change of linen. Boarding schools were poorly provided with food. In most cases, pupils were provided only with flour products, they did not receive enough vegetables and did not receive fat at all. Household plots at many boarding schools were not organized, and the available household were too small and could not provide the minimum nutritional needs of the pupils. In most regional cities and industrial centers, due to the lack of attention from the regional, city Soviets of workers> deputies, boarding schools at Kazakh secondary schools were closed or were in a very poor condition. (Pavlodar, Kzyl-Orda, Semipalatinsk regions According to the Kustanai regional department of public education,
boarding schools at Kazakh secondary schools were not equipped, there was not enough furniture, hard inventory. The existing bedding fell into complete disrepair, there was no replenishment in recent years, boarding schools were in dire need of uniforms. A similar situation was observed in the boarding schools of the Dzhambul, Semipalatinsk, West Kazakhstan regions (Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, File 1692. Inventory 1. Case 720: 42).
Conclusion
In Kazakhstan, during the war years, the number of schoolchildren at all levels sharply decreased (moreover, the reduction was more significant precisely in the number of students). Moreover, the sharpest reduction in students occurred preciselyin the uppergrades.Thereasons were difficult living conditions and working days. Parents of schoolchildren completely relied on the school in matters of education and upbringing, and even organizing leisure activities for their children. The introduction of separate education for boys and girls, as well as the admission of children to school from the age of 7 during the war years, introduced some difficulties in the organization of education. Many teachers went to the front, teachers were sorely lacking. Classes were often held in three shifts. Schools experienced an acute shortage of educational materials, stationery. During the cold season, problems with heating and electricity were not uncommon. But, despite all this, classes, circle and extracurricular activities were held. The education of Soviet citizens was also part of the school>s duties, which it successfully coped with, educating the younger generation.
An analysis of archival statistics shows that Kazakh schools in rural areas are in the most difficult situation. Of the students who stopped studying in the 1942-1943 school year, 55.4% were Kazakh students. During the war years, the reduction occurred in 612 schools (primary, seven-year, secondary), of which 520 (85%) were Kazakh schools. Of these 520 schools, 297 (57%) became schools with Russian, Ukrainian and Polish as the language of instruction, as a
significant part of the evacuated population was placed in rural areas. Due to reorganization, lack of funding and lack of teaching staff in many auls, Kazakh schools were closed.
The work of boarding schools played a significant role in the education of children from remote settlements, making it possible to complete both seven-year and full secondary school. Children in the boarding school were under the constant supervision of teachers, received food, uniforms. Boarding schools have become a necessary link in the system of school education. This type of institution was simply indispensable in rural areas. In remote villages, schools were closed, as they could not recruit full-fledged classes and required a large number of teachers, the shortage of which became much more acute during the war years. And the way out of this situation was boarding schools, to
which children were brought from remote places and studied in full-fledged school classes with the necessary teaching staff. Living conditions for children and food often had many shortcomings. But the work of boarding schools was extremely important in the implementation of universal education, especially in helping the population of remote settlements in teaching children in secondary school.
Funding
The article was written as part of the competition for grant funding for research by young scientists under the project "Zhas galym" for 2022-2024 individual registration number 0122PK0057 "Soviet childhood in Kazakhstan during the war years (1941-1945): history and everyday life".
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З.Г. Сактаганова, Ж.К. Абдукаримова
Карагандинский университет имени академика Е.А. Букетова, Караганда, Казахстан
Советское детство в школах и интернатах Казахстана в годы войны (1941-1945 гг.)
Аннотация. В статье рассматриваются вопросы организации обучения советских детей в школах и интернатах Казахской ССР в годы Великой Отечественной войны (1941-1945 гг.). На основе данных архивных документов и материалов устных источников авторами проводится анализ жизни советских казахстанских школьников в годы войны. При написании статьи использовались материалы фондов архивов Республики Казахстан и Росссийской Федерации. Архивные документы, большинство из которых впервые вводится в оборот, показывают реальное положение советских школ и интернатов, а материалы интервью, взятые у «детей войны», дополняют исследование воспоминаниями участников событий военных лет. Авторы на примере данных ряда областей Казахстана показывают изменения, произошедшие в системе школьного обучения, одним из них было уменьшение числа школников в годы войны. Также исследуются причины изменения количества обучающихся, в особенности в старших классах, среди девушек казахских школ. Основываясь на статистических данных, в статье изучаются проблемы организации обучения школьников в интернатах, а также роль интернатного обучения для реализации программы всеобуча для отдаленных населенных пунктов республики. Хотя в отечественной исторической науке имеется ряд исследований по проблемам казахстанских школ в годы войны, но все же история детства казахстанских детей военных лет пока не стала объектом специального изучения.
Ключевые слова: дети; советское детство; школа; интернат; эвакуация; каникулы; Карагандинская область; Великая Отечественная война.
З.Г. Сакд^анова, Ж.К. Абдукаримова
Академик Е.А. Бекетов атындагы Караганды университет^ Караганды, Казахстан
СоFыс жылдарындаFы K,азакстандаFы мектептер мен интернаттардаFы кецестж балалык шак (1941-1945)
Авдатпа. Макалада ¥лы Отан согысы (1941-1945) жылдарындагы Казак КСР мектептерi мен мек-теп-интернаттарында ?балаларды окытуды уйымдастыру мэселелерi карастырылган. Авторлар мурагат кужаттарыныц деректерi мен ауызша деректердщ материалдары непзшде согыс жылдарындагы кецестш казакстандык мектеп окушыларыныц eмiрiн талдайды. Макаланы жазу кезшде Казакстан Республикасы мен Ресей Федерациясыныц мурагат корларыныц материалдары пайдаланылды. Бiрiншi рет айналымга енпзыш жаткан мурагат кужаттары кецес мектептерi мен интернаттардагы накты жагдайды керсетед^ «Согыс балаларынан» алынган сухбат материалдары макаланы согыс жылдарындагы окигаларга каты-сушылардыц естелiктерiмен толыктырады. Авторлар Казакстанныц бiркатар облыстарыныц деректерш мысалга ала отырып, мектеп ЖYйесiнде болган eзгерiстердi кeрсетедi, олардыц бiрi согыс жылдарындагы мектеп окушылары саныныц азаюы. Эсiресе, жогары сыныптарда казак мектебiндегi кыздардыц саныныц езгерушщ себептерi де зерттелген. Статистикалык мэлiметтерге CYйене отырып, макалада мектеп-интернаттарда мектеп окушыларыныц бШм алуын уйымдастыру мэселелер^ сондай-ак респу-бликаныц шалгай елдi мекендерi Yшiн жалпыга бiрдей бШм беру багдарламасын жузеге асырудагы мектеп-интернаттыц рeлi карастырылады. Отандык тарих гылымында согыс жылдарындагы казак мек-тептершщ мэселелерiне катысты бiркатар зерттеулер болганымен, согыс жылдарындагы казак балала-рыныц балалык шагыныц тарихы элi арнайы зерттеу нысанына айналган жок.
ТYЙiн сездер: балалар; кецестш балалык шак; мектеп; интернат; эвакуация; демалыс; Караганды об-лысы; ¥лы Отан согысы.
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Information about authors:
Saktaganova Zarish Galimzhanovna - Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of the department of archeology, ethnology and national history, Director of the Center for Ethnocultural and Historical-Anthropological Research, Karaganda State University named after Academician E. A. Buketov, Karaganda, Kazakhstan.
Abdukarimova Zhanara Kadirovna - Senior Lecturer, Department of Archeology, Ethnology and National History, Academician E. A. Buketov Karaganda University, Karaganda, Kazakhstan.
Солтаганова Зауреш Галимжановна - тарих гылымдарыныц докторы, археология, этнология жэне Отан тарихы кафедрасыныц профессоры, этномэдени жэне тарихи-антропологиялыщ зерттеулер орта-лыгыныц директоры, академик Е. А. Бекетов атындагы Караганды университета
Абдукаримова Жанара Кадировна - археология, этнология жэне Отан тарихы кафедрасыныц ага о^ытушысы, академик Е. А. Бекетов атындагы Караганды университет^ Караганды, Казахстан.
