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19PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
УДК 53:37.016
СОБСТВЕННЫЕ И ПРИМЕСНЫЕ ПОЛУПРОВОДНИКИ
ГАСАНОВ ОКТАЙ МАИЛОВИЧ
доцент, доктор философии по физике, АДПУ, Баку, Азербайджан
АДГЕЗАЛОВА ХАТЫРЯ АГАКАРИМ КЫЗЫ
доцент, доктор философии по физике, АДПУ, Баку, Азербайджан
ГУСЕЙНОВ ДЖАХАНГИР ИСЛАМ ОГЛЫ
профессор, доктор философии по физике, АДПУ, Баку, Азербайджан
Аннотация: Полупроводники, полупроводниковые соединения играют важную роль в электронике и микроэлектронике и поэтому изучение их физических свойств, поиск новых полупроводниковых соединений играет важную роль в науке и технике. На основе полупроводниковых соединений изготавливаются преобразователи световой энергии в электрическую и наоборот, преобразователи тепловой энергии в электрическую.
Ключевые слова: металлы, полупроводники, диэлектрики, полупроводниковые приборы, удельное сопротивление, концентрация.
Практическая значимость исследования полупроводников и их соединений обусловлено тем, что эти материалы используются для изготовления полупроводниковых приборов. Полупроводниковые приборы используются для выпрямления, усиления и генерации колебаний.
Все вещества по своим электрофизическим свойствам могут быть разбиты на три класса: металлы, полупроводники и диэлектрики. Наиболее просто, казалось бы, их можно классифицировать по величине удельного сопротивления. У металлов удельное сопротивление находиться в пределах (10-6- 10-4) Омсм, например, у серебра оно равно 1,58
10-6 Омсм, для сплава нихром удельное сопротивление равно 1,05 10-4 Ом см. Вещества с удельным сопротивлением от 10-4 до 1010 Омсм отнесены к полупроводникам, например, удельное сопротивление сернистого кадмия при комнатной температуре в зависимости от технологии изготовления меняется от 10-3 до 1022 Омсм, а удельное сопротивление германия
от 10-4 до 47 Ом см. Вещества с удельным сопротивлением большим 1010 Ом см отнесены е диэлектрикам, например, для слюды в зависимости от состава удельное сопротивление равно103- 1016 Омсм, у стекла оно равно108 -1015 Омсм. Из приведенных примеров видно,
что удельное сопротивление при переходе от одного класса к другому перекрывается. Поэтому значения удельного сопротивления не могут служит однозначным критерием для
классификации веществ. Металлы и полупроводники имеют различную температурную зависимость удельного сопротивления и удельной проводимости. У металлов удельное сопротивление р увеличивается пропорционально абсолютной температуре Т, то есть: р =
где р0 - удельное сопротивление данного металла, а а - температурный коэффициент изменения сопротивления равный 1/273. Для металлов характерен отрицательный температурный коэффициент удельного сопротивления. У полупроводников характер температурной зависимости удельного сопротивления и удельной проводимости иной: р = р0 е р/ Т о = 00 е - р/ Т
где р0, 00, Р - некоторые постоянные для данного температурного интервала, характерные для каждого полупроводникового вещества.
ро(1 + аТ)
PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
Такие зависимости удельного сопротивления и проводимости имеют так называемые невырожденные полупроводники. Для невырожденных полупроводников характерно наличие положительного температурного коэффициента удельной проводимости.
Вопрос о различии полупроводников и металлов решен знаком температурного коэффициента удельной проводимости. Однако выбор такого критерия осложнен тем, что в некотором интервале температур полупроводники ведут себя как металлы. Поэтому по знаку температурного коэффициента удельной проводимости не всегда можно определить принадлежность вещества к полупроводникам. Ответить на этот вопрос можно, если изучить температурную зависимость проводимости вещества. При понижении температуры удельная проводимость металлов растет. При температуре абсолютного нуля металлы имеют конечное значение удельной проводимости, а уряда металлов наступает сверхпроводящее состояние, характеризуемое сильным возрастанием удельной проводимости. Рост удельной проводимости металлов с понижением температуры обусловлен тем, что независимо от температуры в металлах всегда имеются свободные носители заряда, то есть электроны. У проводников наоборот удельная проводимость понижается с понижением температуры, а по мере приближения к температуре абсолютного нуля, полупроводники по своим свойствам приближаются к диэлектрикам. В полупроводниках свободные носители заряда возникают по мере подведения к полупроводнику тепловой энергии. Эти носители заряда называются тепловыми или неравновесными. Эксперимент показывает, что появление свободных носителей заряда в полупроводниках имеет место также при освещении, облучении ядерными частицами, при наложении на полупроводник электрического поля. при изменении внешнего давления. Возникающие в этих случаях носители заряда называются неравновесными. Процесс образования как неравновесных, так и равновесных носителей заряда очень сильно зависит от структуры полупроводникового вещества и наличия в нем примесей. Исходя из вышеизложенных полупроводников можно дать следующее определение: полупроводники -это вещества, которые при комнатной температуре имеют удельное проводимость в интервале от 10-10 до 104 Омсм, зависящую в сильной степени от температуры вещества, вида и количества примеси и от внешних условий, то есть температуры, освещения, давления, освещения, облучения ядерными частицами, электрического и магнитного полей.
Таким образом, между полупроводниками и диэлектриками нет качественного различия, так как они обладают проводимостью вследствие теплового возбуждения носителей заряда. Более существенны различия между металлами и полупроводниками. У металлов проводимость слабо завесить от присутствия примесей, внешних условий и при любой температуре концентрация свободных носителей заряда остается постоянной и составляет величину 1022 см-3. Различие между полупроводниками и металлами заключается в том, что при пропускании тока через цепь, состоящую из двух полупроводников, сила тока нелинейно зависит от разности потенциалов приложенной к цепи.
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2. Калашников. Н.П. «Основы физики» Учеб. для вузов. В 2 т. М. Дрофа, 2004.- Т.2 . 432 с.
3. Орир Дж. Физика: Пер. с англ., в 2 т. М. :Мир, 1981.- 288 с. Т. 2.
4. Трофимова Т.И. «Курс физики» Учеб. пособие для вузов. М. : Высш. шк., 2004. - 544 с
5.Ермолаева В.И.,Двуличанская Н.Н.,Горшкова В.М.«Физико-химические свойства полупроводниковых материалов»Издательство МГТУ им. Н.Э. Баумана,учебное пособие,2006
6. Шалимова К.В. «Физика полупроводников», М., Энергоатомиздат, 1985
7. Пасынков В.В., Сорокин В.С. «Материалы электронной техники». - Учеб. Для студентов по спец. «Полупроводники и диэлектрики» - 2-е изд., М.: Высшая школа, 1986.
СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННЫХ ИСТОЧНИКОВ:
А
PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIETY
SAMiR GULUZADA
Student of the computer science faculty of University of Economics Scientific supervisor - FARHADOVA GULSHAN Baku, Azerbaijan
Abstract: The purpose of this research is to analyze how technology has changed the way people interact with each other, conduct business, and access information. Digital transformation is having a profound impact on virtually every aspect of modern society, from the way we work and communicate to the way we learn and play. This study examines how digital transformation affects people's work, social life and overall well-being. In addition, this study discusses the benefits of digital transformation of a business and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the acceleration of digital transformation processes in a number of organizations. Research in this area is essential for understanding the complex interactions between technology and society and for developing strategies to manage these changes, identifying potential risks and challenges associated with digital transformation, such as cyber security threats and changing business domains.
Key words: digital transformation, social impact, cybersecurity,IT,education
Digital transformation has been one of the most important technological trends of the 21st century.It refers to the integration of digital technologies into various aspects of an organization or society and is considered an important trend as it ultimately changes the way people live, work and interact with each other. Despite the significant damage caused by the pandemic to the global economy and businesses around the world during the COVID-19 pandemic, digital technologies have played an important role in the development of digital technologies. The pandemic has increased the speed of digital transformation in several areas, including education, healthcare and business. The rapid increase in the use of digital transformation has begun to affect society both positively and negatively. It has enabled remote work and virtual learning, which has helped maintain economic and educational continuity during the pandemic. The growing reliance on digital technologies has highlighted problems such as the digital divide, as many people do not have access to the necessary technology and infrastructure to fully participate in the digital society. In addition, the transition to digital transformation and the development of the Internet have had significant impacts on many industries. The impact of digital transformation on society has been profound and this article will explore some of its effects. The rest of the article is structured in this way. Increasing efficiency, improved communication, changing work areas, increasing access to information, cyber security risks from the effects of digital transformation will be presented consecutively.
1) Increasing efficiency: One of the most significant impacts of digital transformation on society is increasing efficiency. The Internet, IT and digital transformation are critical to business sustainability and effectiveness. While the initial focus of digitization in business was on improving efficiency, it is now clear that its impact is much deeper. Digitalization enables companies to work smarter and faster, create innovative business models and reap numerous benefits. Digital technologies allow businesses to automate processes, simplify operations and reduce costs. This leads to increased efficiency, faster response times and increased customer satisfaction. For example, the use of digital technologies such as robotics, automation and the Internet of Things (IoT) in the manufacturing industry has allowed manufacturers to significantly increase their efficiency and productivity. With these technologies, manufacturers can automate production lines, monitor their operations in real-time, and optimize supply chain management. The increased efficiency brought about by digital transformation has also had a significant impact on the financial services industry. With the rise of fintech, the use of digital platforms and tools has enabled financial institutions to automate their operations, reduce costs and provide better services to their customers. Online banking,
mobile payments and digital wallets have contributed to making financial transactions faster, more convenient and more accessible.
2) Improved communication: Digital technologies allow people to connect with each other in real time, regardless of their location. This results in improved collaboration, faster decision making and better customer service. Digital transformation in the business world has enabled organizations to communicate more effectively with their customers, partners and employees. With the use of digital platforms such as social media, businesses can communicate more effectively with their customers, respond to their inquiries and feedback in real time, and build stronger relationships with them. Digital communication tools have also enabled businesses to collaborate more effectively with their partners and suppliers, improving the efficiency of supply chain management. For example, video conferencing tools like Zoom and Microsoft Teams allow businesses to hold virtual meetings with participants from different locations without the need for physical travel.
3) Changing work areas: Digital transformation has also led to changing work areas. As businesses become more digital, they are automating many tasks, resulting in changing jobs for many employees. The impact of changing workplaces through digital transformation is likely to be most acutely felt in industries such as manufacturing and retail, where everyday tasks can be easily automated using robots, artificial intelligence and other digital technologies. Jobs such as data entry, assembly line work and cashiers are at particularly high risk of being displaced by digital transformation. The impact of changing business areas through digital transformation will be unevenly distributed, with some regions and sectors affected more than others. Workers with low levels of education and skills may be particularly vulnerable to job displacement as they are less adaptable to new tasks and industries. However, new jobs have also been created in areas such as data analytics, cyber security and digital marketing. This is driving a shift in the labor market with an increasing emphasis on digital skills. To mitigate the impact of job displacement, it is important for businesses, governments and society as a whole to invest in upskilling and upskilling programs that enable workers to acquire the skills they need to succeed in the digital economy. Governments may also need to consider providing income support and other social protections to workers displaced by digital transformation.
4) Increased access to information: Digital technologies have made it easier for people to access information from anywhere in the world. This has led to greater transparency, improved education and better informed decision making. Digital transformation in education is making education more accessible and affordable by providing access to online courses, e-books and other digital resources. This has facilitated access to education, allowing people who do not have access to traditional educational institutions to acquire new skills and knowledge. The digital transformation in politics has given citizens access to information about their governments, political parties and elected officials, enabling them to make more informed decisions and hold their leaders accountable. It also facilitated the growth of social and political movements, providing a platform for people to express their views and organize for change. However, increasing access to information through digital transformation is not without challenges. The sheer volume of information available can make it difficult for people to find reliable sources of information and assess the reliability of the information they encounter. The risk of misinformation and disinformation is also a concern, as people can be exposed to false or misleading information through digital channels.
5) Cyber security risks: Digital transformation has also led to increased cyber security risks. As organizations become more digital, they also become more vulnerable to cyberattacks. This has led to increased investment in cyber security and greater focus on data privacy and protection. Cyberattacks can take many forms, including data breaches, ransomware attacks, and phishing scams. The impact of these attacks can result in financial losses and the capture of sensitive data. Another significant cybersecurity risk associated with digital transformation is the proliferation of ransomware attacks. Ransomware is a type of malware that encrypts a victim's files and demands payment in exchange for a decryption key. Ransomware attacks can have significant financial consequences for
businesses and can also disrupt critical services such as healthcare and transportation. Phishing scams are another common form of cyberattacks that are more common in the digital age. Phishing scams involve the use of fake emails, texts or social media messages that appear to be from a legitimate source. These messages are designed to trick individuals into revealing sensitive information or clicking on a malicious link. The impact of cyber security risks associated with digital transformation is significant and can have far-reaching consequences for society. In addition to financial losses and damage to trust, cyber-attacks can lead to the hijacking of critical infrastructure such as power grids and transportation systems. This can cause widespread disruption and is potentially life-threatening. To mitigate the risks associated with digital transformation, individuals, businesses and governments must take proactive measures to protect themselves from cyber attacks. This includes implementing strong cyber security measures such as multi-factor authentication, data encryption and regular software updates. It also includes training employees on how to recognize and prevent cyber threats, and developing incident response plans to respond quickly and effectively to cyber incidents.
6) Personalized Experiences: Digital transformation has had a profound impact on the way businesses operate and engage with their customers. One of the most significant impacts of digital transformation is the ability of businesses to provide personalized experiences to their customers. With the vast amount of data generated by digital devices and tools, businesses can now collect and analyze information about customer behavior, preferences, and interests. This information can then be used to tailor products and services to individual needs and preferences. This level of personalization is increasingly important in today's highly competitive business environment, where customers expect a personalized experience at every touchpoint. Personalized experiences can take many forms, from personalized product recommendations and targeted marketing campaigns to personalized customer support and services. For example, online retailers can use customers' purchase histories and browsing behavior to provide personalized product recommendations and offers. Similarly, healthcare providers can use data from wearable devices to provide personalized treatment plans and health recommendations. Personalized experiences can not only improve customer satisfaction and loyalty, but also increase revenue and profits for businesses. According to a report by Accenture, companies that provide personalized experiences to their customers can see a 2-3x increase in customer loyalty, which leads to a potential revenue increase of up to 10%. However, it is important to note that personalization also raises privacy and data security concerns. Businesses must ensure that they collect and use customer data ethically and transparently, while implementing robust data security measures to protect customer data from cyber threats.
7) Digital transformation has not only revolutionized the way we live and work, but has also had a significant impact on the environment. The widespread use of digital technologies has had both positive and negative effects on the environment. One of the positive effects of digital transformation on the environment is the reduction of paper use. The increase in the use of digital documents such as e-bills and receipts has led to a decrease in the demand for paper products. This reduction in paper use has resulted in less deforestation and less greenhouse gas emissions associated with paper production. Another positive impact of digital transformation on the environment is the increased use of renewable energy sources. Many data centers and technology companies are now investing in renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power and reducing their dependence on non-renewable energy sources. However, the digital transformation has had a negative impact on the environment, especially in terms of e-waste. The rapid pace of technological progress has led to a high turnover rate of electronic devices, which has led to the generation of significant amounts of e-waste. This e-waste often ends up in landfills or is sent to developing countries for disposal, posing significant environmental and health hazards. In addition, the increase in the use of digital technologies has led to a significant increase in energy consumption. The growing demand for data centers and cloud computing services has led to increased energy use, especially in non-renewable energy sources such as coal and natural gas.
CONCLUSION
Digital transformation is rapidly changing the way people interact with each other and access information. Digital transformation has had both positive and negative effects on society. This transformation has significant implications for society, including the way people work, communicate and consume information. As discussed in various sections, it has improved communication, increased access to information, changed the labor market, and increased efficiency. However, digital transformation has also created a number of challenges, including changing business domains, cybersecurity risks, and data privacy concerns. It is important that organizations take a strategic approach to digital transformation, taking into account the potential risks and challenges associated with these changes. Furthermore, ensuring that the benefits of digital transformation are available to all, regardless of socio-economic status, is critical to creating a fairer and more inclusive society. As we continue to undergo digital transformation, it is important that we continue to assess the impact of these changes and work to resolve any issues that arise. At the same time, we need to take advantage of the many opportunities that digital transformation offers, such as improved productivity, more effective collaboration and an improved customer experience. Only then can we create a future where digital transformation is a force for positive change and progress. Widespread adoption of digital technologies and processes has enabled organizations to operate more effectively, reduce costs, and remain competitive in an increasingly complex and fast-paced business environment. It is also important to identify potential risks and challenges associated with digital transformation, such as cyber security threats and changing workplaces. In addition, research in this area can inform policy decisions at the local, national and international levels and promote innovation in areas such as health, education and finance. Overall, research into digital transformation and its impact on society is critical to ensuring that we can effectively manage these changes and maximize their benefits while minimizing their risks. As society continues to work on the challenges and opportunities presented by the digital transformation, it is important to carefully consider the impact of these technologies and work towards creating an accessible, safe and fair digital society for all.
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