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8Европейские ученые были заинтересованы во всех арабских документах. Это переводы греческих работ, арабские оригиналы, арабские переводы рукописей других культур. Джордж Салиба обнаружил, что научные работы, написанные на арабском языке, в настоящее время находятся в европейских библиотеках, где сконцентрированы все научные мысли и работы средневекового периода. Исследователь говорит, что многие европейские ученые в эпоху Возрождения владели арабским языком. [5, 86-87]
Европейский ученый Уильям Харви учился в Падуе. Он «установил» геометрию системы кровообращения человека в 1629 г. Как указывает Салиба имеется арабская рукопись, написанная в 1241 г., дамасским врачом Ибн аль-Нафис (ум.1288), где выложена та же геометрия кровообращения, утверждающая и объясняющая каждый момент схемы, решающая определенные проблемные вопросы прошлой медицины и отказываясь от не удовлетворяющих мнений древнегреческого врача Галена. Вот пример, Коперник так же учился в Падуе.
По словам Джорджа Салибы и «Пара Туси», и Лемма Урди «ограниченно встроены в астрономию Коперника, да так, что было бы немыслимо, чтобы извлечь их и оставить математическое здание астрономии Коперника нетронутым». [5, 230]
Любая геометрическая теорема имеет различные точки с буквами или цифрами по усмотрению составителя. Порядок и выбор символов произволен. Немецкий историк науки Вилли Хартнер отметил, что геометрические точки, используемые Коперником, были идентичны оригинальной нотации ат-Туси. То есть, точка, отмеченная символом «Алиф» по Туси была отмечена Коперником - А. Арабский «Ба» ознаменовался - В и т.д. Все точки Коперника фонетический эквивалент арабского алфавита (языка). Было одно слабое исключение. Центр меньшего круга в диаграмме Туси - Z, у Коперника F. Хотя в арабском языке Z (письменная буква) легко похожа на
Вторая «новая» теорема - Коперника, Лемма Урди не имеет от него доказательства. Иоганн Кеплер растянул круговые орбиты планет Коперника в эллипсы, ближе к концу XVI века и спрашивает у Коперника доказательство «новой» теоремы, но остается без ответа.
Необходимо принять, что новая математика в «революции Коперника» возникла сначала от исламского ума, а не европейского.
Историки науки задают вопрос: почему Коперник не признает использование трудов мусульманских ученых? И получают, в определенной мере, логический ответ: тогда Османская империя была у ворот Европы, в этих
условиях было бы не уместным называть идеи и заслуги исламских ученых. У Европы была своя «гордость».
Одной из версий ответа на вопрос: как получил Коперник труды Туси? Будет тот факт, что в Италии найден латинский перевод Туси. Коперник провел много времени в Италии, где он, возможно, читал рукописи. (прим. Дж. Салибы)
Критика Туси Птолемея о физическом характера Земли была похожа на аргументы, позже используемые Коперником в 1543 г., чтобы защитить вращение Земли.
О действительной сущности Млечного Пути Туси пишет, что Млечный Путь - галактика, состоит и очень большого числа мелких, плотно расположенных звезд, которые по причине их концентрации и малости, кажутся облаком в молочном цвете. Три века спустя, в 1610 г. это повторно сказал Галилео Галилей, используя телескоп.
Модель Луны и Меркурия, подготовленная сирийским астрономом Ибн аль-Шатыр, была так же в книге Коперника.
Туси разработал специальную геометрическую конструкцию в связи с V постулатом Евклида, которая была использована в Англии Джоном Уоллисом (1703) в своих исследованиях. Впоследствии этот метод был использован Саккери (1733), но оба они не назвали Туси.
В 1957 г. удалось продемонстрировать, что теоремы Туси и Урды, модель для Луны Ибн аль-Шатыра были использованы Коперником под именем собственной астрономии и считались революцией Коперника, опубликованы в 1543 г.
Гегелем сказаны, действительно, верные слова: «Не будь Востока, не было бы Запада».
Литература
1. Ахмад Dallai, "Наука, медицина и технологии" в The Oxford История ислама, под ред. Джона Эспозито (Оксфорд: Оксфорд Руководство университета, 1999), ст. 161.
2. Джеймс Э. Моррисон, "История Астролябии", 6 янв 2006, http://astrolabcs.org/history.htm (3/12/06).
3. Фонд науки, технологии и цивилизации, "мусульманские Обсерватории",2002, http://mus-lirnheritage.com /topics/default.cfm ?ArticleID=235 (6/12/06).
4. Kennedy E.S. Late Medival planetary theory //Isis. -1966, - Vol.57. - p. 365 - 378.
5. Saliba G. The Astronomical Tradition of Maragha: A Historical Survey and Prospects for Future Research, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy. - 1991, - Vol. - 1. - p. 67 - 99.
SMALL AND MEDIUM BUSINESS IN AGRARIAN POLICY OF RUSSIA
Uzlov Yuriy
Candidate of Science, assistant professor of Kuban State University, Krasnodar
ABSTRACT
The article in the format of historical retrospective examines the evolutionary processes of small and medium businesses in the agricultural sector of the Russian economy, see peer review experts.
Keywords: modernization of the agrarian economy, development model, the form of ownership.
World civilization is characterized by uneven socioeconomic and technological development. Global challenges, standing is the key to humanity, determine the need for developing alternatives to economic trajectories, the reorientation of all kinds of human activity, going beyond the boundaries of technocratically oriented values and ideals.
Value vectors which define the path of development of the society, are the imperatives of environmental safety, social justice, democracy and economic prosperity. Scientific thought is actualized on a model of sustainable development that includes economic, environmental and social aspects. This model of development focused on economic vitality, self-sufficiency and social justice.
World economic experience of the late XX - early XXI centuries suggests that the rapid development of technology is changing the lifestyle of people, contributes to the development of the private sector and rapid urbanization. States that used innovations, has gone far ahead in its development, and those who remained in captivity traditions, away from global integration, more and more immersed in the economic and technological backwardness.
Among the complex issues, together characterizing the appearance of the domestic economic system, it's important to the solution of problems of modernization, adoption of a new type of thinking and entrepreneurship, creation of comfortable conditions for free competition. Undoubtedly, this is all complex and multifaceted issues, however, without deep analysis, it is impossible to understand the essence of what is happening.
Historically, in the economy of the agrarian problem is always difficult and painful dare. Agro Industrial Complex (AIC) ratio is among the priority areas. The purpose of the AIC is not only in providing for the needs of people for food, but also that the industry has a great impact on employment of the population, the efficiency of the national production.
Agriculture produces about 8.5% of gross domestic product, industry-focused 3,4% of the fixed assets in the agricultural industry employs more than 7.3 million people. Russia has one of the world's largest economic potentials for food production: 8.9% of world arable lands, 2.6% pasture, 20% of the water [1].
The work attempts to analyze some of the results of agrarian reforms of the post-Soviet period from the point of view of their economic and social impacts and identify models of possible scenarios of Russia's accession to the World Trade Organisation.
In science there are two concepts on strategy of development of economy of Russia: the first involves the preservation of historical and economic traditions in South-East Asia; the second offers an evolutionary strategy of modernization, based on the experience of Western European countries and the USA. Russia's economy has been transformed from the Soviet planning model to a market model, without taking into account the national peculiarities and the possible consequences.
The generator of the agrarian economy in transition is a entrepreneurship and the attitude of the rural population. The emergence of rural entrepreneurship in Russia and the attitude of peasants to work in a free market have a long history. This issue is devoted to numerous studies by economists, historians, sociologists, most of whom agree about the so-called "special" ways of development of the country and
come to the conclusion that there is any conflict between collectivism individualism that distinguishes Russians from inhabitants of the European countries. Russia retained the persistence of practices of management, characterized by a lack of tradition of private ownership of land.
Russian historiography of the first wave of economic reforms of the new Russia in its construction, was based primarily on opposition, but rather denigrating, the experience of their predecessors. The publication contains recommendations claim to the organizational forms inherited from the Soviet era, should disappear as increasing activity created innovative institutions. Patterns that existed in the economy in the Soviet period, was seen as something dying, not being able to resist the conversions taking place, or to coexist with them.
Hasty transition of Russian economy to a more "rational" from the point of view of classical economic theory of growth forms of socio-economic relations, demanded too high prices.
The representative of the evolutionary version of traditionalism P. Sztompka, the tradition understands the totality of objects and ideas, the origins of which are rooted in the past, but are undetectable in the present. All that "was not destroyed, discarded or broken". Tradition is equivalent to the legacy of what has actually been preserved from the past. Any tradition can stifle creativity or innovation [2].
Russia has historically belonged to the type of society with the traditional way in which, according to A. Akhiezer, failed to complete a liberal Western-style modernization [3, p. 13].
Representatives of the scientific organization of labor and production management L. Gilbert, D. Moreno, E. Mayo, F. Taylor believe that the process of transition to the market should reflect the fullness of the object. Definitely, the introduction of new forms in addition to professional qualities of employees, should take into account economic, political factors, especially sociocultural environment.
According to the theory of institutional analysis, changes in patterns of organizations and their governing institutions entered in the appropriate socio-economic environment of a particular system. Institutions regulating the activities of market agents are not created from scratch.
Formed during the transformation of certain climatic, historical and socio-economic processes of the country, inherit from the base of the farming systems defined rules and shape the incentives of choosing a form of organization of the economy.
American scientist D. North [4], believes that in the world practice there were two economic revolution, the first was connected with registration of property rights to land, and the second with the emergence of copyright.
All major institutional change is slow and newly formed institutions are the result of the transformation of the socio-economic conditions that shape individual behavior and expectation of the people. Economic systems evolve in an evolutionary way, and the choice of forms of business, their market efficiency, both in biological and technological systems, depends on the model of the previous development.
If poor countries are poor because they are victims of institutional structures that impede growth, then, the question is whether imposed this institutional structure from the outside or is determined by internal factors, or is a consequence of a combination of both.
Russian specialists of the research problem, in their own way interpret what the agricultural modernization of the Russian economy. Representatives of the Novosibirsk academic school agree that the institutional system of the Russian-Soviet type have high inertia, which makes the import of Western institutions is problematic.
Academician T. Zaslavskaya, analyzing reforms of recent decades, in solidarity with the authors, who believe that "getting into the Russian environment, the formal-legal rules of a liberal type change beyond recognition, as if they had undergone mutation and as a result would be unable to fulfil its destiny" [5, p. 49].
O. Bessonova on a large historical data showed that for centuries Russia was not peculiar to the market, and "distributing" the economy, not less viable than the market, having its own laws of development [6, p. 40]. The failure of reforms is due to the fact that the declared goals are often at odds with the objective nature of the economic system.
S. Kirdina introduces the concept of institutional matrices "as a stable, historically developed system of basic institutions governing the interrelated functioning of basic public spheres - economic, political, ideological". Forming institutional matrix basic institutions represent the internal fittings, stable structure, which incorporates the major subsystems of society in a holistic education and not allow society to disintegrate. Differences in the content of the basic institutions of different societies are characterized as X - or Y - matrix, which determines the different ways the evolution of different social systems [7].
G. Manzanola believes that the matrix does not indicate the path of development re-forms do not explain their logic, not scenario predicts innovations for States with different institutional matrices [8, p. 185].
D. North, believes that institutional constraints form the incentive structure of societies and economies. Traditions also determine the continuity of social institutions, boundaries of innovation, being the main criterion of legality in this ethnic community [9, p. 42].
The evolutionary view of tradition was the basis for the neoclassical style, this hotel classical theory of economic growth. The main provisions of this theory were used to transition economies in the transformation countries of Central and Eastern Europe and CIS. According to this concept, the change of the external parameters of social systems, their endogenous (innovation) systems that automatically leads to changes in their internal parameters, exogenous (traditional) characteristics of their functioning.
Domestic reformers believed that by following the methodological recommendations of the World Bank, by themselves, will form the fundamental basis of market structures, including in the agricultural sector of the Russian economy. The competitive environment will create the incentives to achieve an automatic balance between the different elements of the organizational structures of the market [10, p. 108].
In the conditions of underdeveloped market infrastructure transition of collective and state farms farm type of economy failed. In virtue of existing on-farm conditions, when the bulk of collective and state farms was on the brink of survival, the interests of rural workers were forced to switch to the field of family farming (LPH), from which they receive a basic income. There is a situation, when poorly developed
market infrastructure, financial, material and technical resources of the farm began to depend on the collective farms, which allocates land plots, feed supplies, equipment, seeds, etc. This may explain the preservation of collective farms as the guarantors of stability of the Russian peasants in the conditions of economic instability of the state.
In the period of transition to market economy forms, as in previous economic period, the function of maintaining the social sphere of the village, the poor and pensioners continued to perform traditional household forms, providing conditions for the survival of rural residents. It is no secret that the collective farms of the Soviet type inherits the main features of Russian communal form and continued the continuity of Russian tradition. Thus, it was ensured the maintenance of the inertia of the development of the agrarian economy, which explains to us the stability of their preservation, in spite of all market innovations.
For the successful functioning of the agricultural small business the necessary modern appliances. The level of capital-labor Western farm surpass the Russian economy in 4-5 times, in charge in 5-6 times. Market competition implies the need for continuous improvement of agricultural technology and workmanship. According to the Ministry of agriculture of the Russian Federation, the Western farmer in the process of production takes possession of 20-25 professions, our specialists possess only 2-3 professions [11, p. 12].
The attempts of the current government in providing farmers the opportunity to own his farm largely similar to those that were carried out by Stolypin reforms. Much combines modern and past reformers: to free the peasant from the community farm; to open the way to various forms of management; to enhance the culture of agricultural production.
The continued sustainability of the agricultural sector is possible only on the basis of the gradual incorporation of market mechanisms in the economy of traditional society. Only as meet the needs of the peasants in the modern means of labor and production technology there is a demand for new, more rational forms of organization of labour, and that should lead to further specialization and diversification of the agricultural sector.
Assessing the prospects of small and medium business, we can assume that it is a highly developed private economy in the Russian context can become the prototype of modern farming is the major source of growth in agricultural production.
Let us summarize. Agrarian policy of the state aims to increase social activity and economic initiatives of the peasantry. The law provided the possibility of choosing forms of management. The state has withdrawn administrative constraints for the development of private farms were created institutional framework for equitable and effective development of all forms of management.
After community and state collectivism in Russia there has been a shift towards individualism has changed in this direction and the attitude to private property, but kept the main thing - dominant integration, both in the past and the present is the state that sets the company unified the universe and normative-axiological order.
References
1. Denisov, V. Investments in APK: playing in a foreign
field//Meat industry. - No. 3 (76)-2010.
2. Sztompka P. Sociology of social changes. M.,1996.
3. Akhiezer A. The Economic reform in Russia. M., 1999.
4. Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. M.,1997.Zaslavskaya 5. Post-Communist transformation. Russia, which we gain. Studies of the Novosibirsk economic-sociological school. Novosibirsk, 2003.
5. Bessonova O. Handout Russia's economy: evolution through transforming the organization. Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2006.
6. Kirdina S. Institutional matrices and development in Russia. The Institute of Economics and industrial engineering SB RAS, 2nd ed., Rev. and more. Novosibirsk, 2001.
7. Manzanola G. Traditions and innovations in the transformation of the agrarian communities. History and modernity. Novosibirsk: No. 1, March 2007.
8. North D. Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. M., 1987.
9. Uzlov Y. The peasantry as an institutional structure of Russian society. Theory and practice of social development. 2011. No. 7.
10. Petrikov A. Where to look for a way out of the crisis? AIC: Economics, management. M., 1998.
РОЛЬ РЫЛЬСКОГО АВИАЦИОННОГО ТЕХНИЧЕСКОГО КОЛЛЕДЖА
В ВОЗРОЖДЕНИИ ПЕРЕВОЗА НА РЕКЕ СЕЙМ
Хороших Владимир Алексеевич
Кандидат ист. наук. Рыльский авиационный технический колледж - филиал Московского государственного технического университета гражданской авиации. г. Рыльск. Преподаватель.
Заслуженный работник транспорта РФ.
ROLE RYLSK AVIATION TECHNICAL COLLEGE IN THE REVIVAL TRANSPORTED RIVER SEIM
Khoroshikh Vladimir, Candidate ist. Sciences Rila Aviation Technical College - a branch of the Moscow State Technical University of Civil Aviation. of Rylsk. Teacher. Honored. Transport Worker of the Russian Federation. АННОТАЦИЯ
Целью работы является исследование тысячелетней истории существования переправы на реке Сейм на основе введения в научный оборот архивных источников. Показано участие Рыльского авиационного технического колледжа в строительстве пешеходного моста. Автор делает акцент на экономическую и политическую обстановку в Российской провинции в 1990 -1999 гг. ABSTRACT
The aim is to study the history of thousands of years of crossing the river on the basis of the Diet introduction into scientific circulation of archival sources. The participation of Rila Aviation Technical College in building a pedestrian bridge. The author focuses on the economic and political situation in the Russian province in 1990 -1999 years.
Ключевые слова: гражданский воздушный флот, училище специальных служб, Рыльск, Курск, Сейм, перевоз,
мост.
Keywords: civil air fleet, school special services, Rylsk, Kursk, Diet, transportation, bridge.
Впервые Рыльск упоминается в Ипатьевской летописи в повествовании о походе князя Юрия Долгорукого на Чернигов, его союзниками были половцы и дружины Новгород - Северского и Рыльского князя Игоря Святославовича. В 1185 году рыляне, участвуя в печально известном походе Игоря Святославовича, («Слово о полку Иго-реве») переправлялись через реку Сейм, используя обустроенный перевоз. Наглядно этот факт можно увидеть на карте походов русских князей в XII веке[10, с. 8-10]. Интенсивно Рыльская переправа функционировала во времена татаро-монгольского нашествия, при походах Лжедмитрия и войск Болотникова в войне с литовцами и шведами. После Полтавской битвы во время Петровских реформ закончился период пограничного значения Рыльской крепости. Многие воины стали торговыми людьми, и их потомки занимали видное место в управлении городским хозяйством, включая мостовое и паромное сообщение на главной почтовой дороге Москва-Рыльск-Курск - Киев. Важнее была только дорога Москва - Петербург.
В деле Рыльского уездного предводителя дворянства «О постройке мостов, гатей и ремонте дорог с сен-
тября 1819 г. по 1 августа 1831 г. хранятся правила по содержанию дорог, утвержденные Указом от 13.12.1817 г., в которых есть упоминание о 4 группах государственных и коммерческих дорогах, перечислены 9 единых требований, в том числе: - все дороги на 30 аршин (1 аршин -71 см) очищать от леса; - при мостовых перевозах равномерно иметь надолбы с перилами; - настил мостов производить из тесаных бревен, а не из кругляков и содержать в исправности; - ширина мостов, плотин и гатей полагается до 4 саженей (1 саж. - 2 метра) [5, д.1410, л. 17-23].
О важности дороги, проходящей через Рыльск, и соответственно перевоза через Сейм, можно судить по историческим фактам посещения города Петром I и другими царственными особами. Например, в письме Курского губернатора от 19 августа 1825 г. Рыльскому уездному предводителю дворянства Суходолову сообщается о следовании Елизаветы Алексеевны из Царского Села в Таганрог с ночлегом в Рыльске и необходимости обратить внимание на содержание дорог и мостов. [5, д.1410, л. 143]
Следующая дата, выявленная в архивах о содержании Рыльского перевоза, датирована 28 октября 1834 г.
