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https://doi.org/10.17323/jle.2024.12603
Scrutinizing the Relationship between Vietnamese English Majors' Intrinsic Motivation and Perceptions Towards Five Components of the 5Ts Framework
Nguyen Thi Diem Ha ®
Yersin University of Dalat, Vietnam
ABSTRACT
Background: Intrinsic motivation (IM) is not far from a new research topic in English teaching. However, the relationship between this learning construct and the 5Ts framework, proposed by Renandya (2014) as a teacher-induced motivational agent, has not been explored. Purpose: This work scrutinised the relationship between IM and perceptions towards five components of the 5Ts framework in an attempt to provide a simple means for effective teaching. Method: 110 English majors responded to a self-questionnaire containing two scales measuring IM and perceptions towards the 5Ts as a motivational agent. Besides descriptive statistics and Cronbach's alpha, the present study employed other necessary techniques, such as Pearson's correlation and regression, to analyse the obtained data to draw results which had pedagogical implications.
Results: The research questionnaire reached acceptable reliability, and the students expressed positive levels of IM and perceptions of the 5Ts framework. The results also revealed a positive relationship between these two variables, and students' perceptions of the 5Ts components predicted their IM.
Conclusion: The findings support the hypothesis that the 5Ts framework enhances motivation. In addition, the teacher might need an added approach to enhance the learning motivation in the students with low levels, parallel with the 5Ts implementation for the entire class.
KEYWORDS
English majors, intrinsic motivation, 5Ts framework, relationship
INTRODUCTION
Citation: Nguyen T.D.H. (2024). Scrutinizing the Relationship between Vietnamese English Majors' Intrinsic Motivation and Perceptions Towards Five Components of the 5Ts Framework. Journal of Language and Education, 10(2), 123-133. https://doi.org/10.17323/jle.2024.12603
Correspondence:
Nguyen Thi Diem Ha, diemhamikawa@gmail.com
Received: June 22, 2021 Accepted: June 14, 2024 Published: June 17, 2024
In the language learning field, the concept of motivation refers to the driving force that moves a learner "to make certain choices, to engage in action, to expend effort and persist in action" during the learning process of the target language (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p. 3). Learning motivation is far from a new research subject, having attracted attention in language learning since 1959, with the first phase known as the social-psychological period (Dörnyei, 2005). Gardner and Lambert (1959) showed that learners' intensity of motivation served as a predictor for language acquisition. Since then, the research on motivation in learning a language, especially English as a foreign language (EFL), has been
overwhelming. In recent years, this subject has still drawn the interest of many researchers, demonstrated by a substantial number of published articles (e.g., Cheng & Cheng, 2013; Aldosari, 2014; Jodaei et al., 2018; Lei & Levitan, 2020; Meng, 2021; Javidkar et al., 2022; Waluyo & Bakoko, 2022; Ali et al., 2023; Siekmann et al., 2023; Nizigama et al., 2023). Vietnamese EFL students' motivation and its related aspects are no exception. In recent years, a significant number of papers dealing with Vietnamese EFL learners' motivation has been published both in national and international journals (e.g., Tran, 2007; Tran & Baldauf, 2007; Vu & Rochelle, 2015; Tuyen & Dan, 2016; Ngo et al., 2017; Doan, 2020; Nguyen & Habok, 2021). However, there is a lack of reports on the predictive role of intrin-
sic motivation from the student's perspective towards the teacher-related factors, including teacher immediacy behaviour, teaching methodology, course task, text, and test as a whole.
Renandya (2014) introduced a 5Ts motivational framework of classroom-related factors that can motivate students to learn the target language. The 5Ts focused on the motivation-influencing elements induced by the teacher named Teacher, Teaching method, Text, Task, and Test. To motivate the students in their English learning, the teacher should show a friendly appearance in class, select effective teaching methods, and choose appropriate text, tasks, and tests for the English course. As many teacher-related factors can make a classroom environment motivating or demotivating (e.g., Lamb, 2017; Quadir, 2017), Wang and Lee (2019) surveyed EFL teachers' and their students' perceptions of Renandya (2014)'s 5Ts and found a minus difference between the two. While teachers and students agreed on the role of Teaching Methodology, Text, and Test components, they had different opinions on the remaining two.
Teacher-related factors such as teacher immediacy, teacher-student rapport, the way of error correction, and teaching methods affect EFL students' motivation (e.g., Hsu et al., 2007; Gol et al., 2014; Cai, 2021; Song et al., 2022; Alrabai, 2022). It is reasonable that the 5Ts framework, as a teacher-induced factor, affects the students' learning motivation during the language course. The extent to which this framework influences L2 learners' intrinsic motivation appears to be an attractive research topic. However, it remains under-researched. For this reason, the current study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between Vietnamese English-major students' intrinsic motivation and their perceptions towards five components of the 5Ts framework. Hopefully, its findings might provide concerned teachers with an option to improve students' motivation in the English learning classroom. Hypothesizing an association between the student's intrinsic motivation and perceptions of the 5Ts, this work aimed to answer the following research questions:
(1) What is Vietnamese English-major students' intrinsic motivation?
(2) What are their perceptions of the 5Ts?
(3) Does students' intrinsic motivation relate to and predict their perceptions of the 5Ts?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Motivation as a Driving Force
Self-determination theory (SDT) deals with human motivation and personality while stressing the vital role of resources inside human beings (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan et al., 1997). Among many reviews, McEown and Oga-Baldwin
(2019) recently wrote a comprehensive article about SDT summarizing its five basic sub-theories and the applications for all language learning research, especially English. The discussed sub-theories included cognitive evaluation, or-ganismic integration, basic psychological needs, goal contents, and causality orientations. These two authors did not consider the relationships motivation theory, which was also an SDT mini-theory since they believed its association with language learning was not crucial in the traditional classroom environment.
The above-mentioned inside-human-being resources are basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy relates to a sense of choice and taking personal responsibility for the entire task (Ryan & Deci, 2017). In other words, this concept is about the learner her-/ himself choosing appropriate learning strategies to gain the target language proficiency. Competence concerns learners' belief that their actions will result in the desired outcome (Deci & Ryan, 2002). The third basic need, relatedness, refers to a learner's desire to have a good connection with classmates and teachers (Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Furrer & Skinner, 2003). Not to mention amotivation, which concerns the feeling of no desire to do learning activities, students' motivation consists of intrinsic and extrinsic (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017). Intrinsic motivation relates to a student's interest, enjoyment, and satisfaction in doing learning activities. Meanwhile, extrinsic refers to performing learning activities for goals such as receiving material rewards, praise, and respect or to avoid unwanted outcomes.
Enhancing Motivation in English Learning
During its history, the research on motivation in English language learning has resulted in a great deal of work, including improving learning motivation (e.g., Tagaki, 2003), enthusiastically joining classroom activities (e.g., Dam & Legenhausen, 1996), and effectively enhancing students' autonomy in and out of the classroom (e.g., Stephenson & Kohyama, 2003; Benson, 2006). For the work since 2005, Boo et al. (2015) have reviewed a substantial amount of L2 motivation research from 2005-2014, analysing 416 published research articles and book chapters to elucidate the changing environment of L2 motivation studies and project potential research directions of this field. These studies remarked on the rapid increase in the number of works, the shifting in nature investigations, the diversification of demographics of study subjects and the L2 involved.
Speaking of practice using motivational agents, recently, some researchers focused on empirical studies based on the motivational potential of the L2 teaching approach by applying new technology. Although they employed different technical tools, these investigations drew out a similar finding that appropriate applications of new techniques as assistant means helped improve L2 learners' motivation. For example, Teeter (2017), utilizing mobile-assisted language
learning (MALL) technology for 1001 Japanese EFL undergraduates, demonstrated that MALL helped improve several learning constructs, such as linguistic confidence, interest in English, and ideal L2 self. He believed that MALL was responsible for that improvement as it increased the opportunities for the students to communicate in English. Using other new techniques, such as game-based learning (Tsai et al., 2017), specific YouTube sites (Tokada, 2020), and ChatGPT (Ali et al., 2023) also allowed teachers to enhance students' motivation to study English. However, some researchers also pointed out that some factors, such as unfamiliar vocabulary, difficulty level, and listening difficulty, might demotivate learners at the same time.
5Ts Framework as a Motivating Agent in the English Classroom
Considering the importance of teacher-related factors in motivating students to learn English, Renandya (2014) developed a framework known as the 5Ts framework for the teacher to carry out their job effectively in the classroom context. The word T in 5Ts stands for these five components of the Teacher him-/herself, the Teaching methods applied, the Task designed for the course, including the teacher's guidance and instruction, the Text involving those selected by both the teachers and the students, and the Test for assessing each learning activities as well as the entire learning process. The Test is not just an exam at the end of the learning course but a multi-step evaluation from start to finish. According to Renandya (2014), the teacher's characteristics, such as being caring, supportive, humorous, enthusiastic, helpful, and committed, to name just a few, had an impact on the student's motivation (e.g., Borg, 2008; Brown, 2012; Dornyei, 2001; Miller, 2012). A variety of teaching methods (Asher, 1977; Farrell, 2006), course tasks (Day & Bamford, 1998; Feather, 1982), texts (Grabe, 2009; Jacobs & Farrell, 2012), and tests (Jacobs & Farrell, 2003; McTighe & O' Connor, 2005) also influenced the student's learning motivation.
Teachers can use Renandya's 5Ts framework as a motivational strategy to enhance their students' motivation in English learning. However, equally implementing all its five components seems unpractical and less effective. In an attempt to point out which components were the most important for priority in practice, Wang and Lee (2019) evaluated teachers' and students' perceptions of the 5Ts and compared these two sets of data. To make this framework more helpful in selecting effective teaching, perhaps the relationship between the 5Ts and students' motivation is indispensable. However, so far, no such empirical studies have been conducted.
METHOD
Participants
The participants in this work were English-majored students at a private university in Vietnam. There were 110 students
in the Faculty of Foreign Languages, including 61 third-year (55.5%) and 49 fourth-year (45.5%). Among the sample, there were 30 males (27.3%) and 80 females (72.7%). The participants have been learning English for ten years (third-year students) or eleven years (fourth-year students). In the university, they have received many courses required by the bachelor program of English Studies, including English Pronunciation Practice, English Grammar 1 & 2, Listening 1 & 2, Speaking 1 & 2, Reading 1 & 2, Writing 1 & 2, Linguistics 1 & 2, English Speaking World, British - American Culture, English -Vietnamese Translation.
Recruitment
This study assumed students who had experienced many courses with different teachers in English learning were crucial since they might compare one English course to another and realize what they need from the teachers to motivate them. With that in mind, the researcher invited 124 third-and fourth-year students majoring in English to join this study. Of that number, 110 students voluntarily took part in the present work.
Instruments
This study employed a Likert-type scale questionnaire comprised of two sections. The first was to collect the responses from the participants for intrinsic motivation. For this section, the present work chose the scale developed by Noels et al. (2003) and successfully adopted by Wang and Lee (2019). This scale consisted of only four items but reflected three main aspects of intrinsic motivation: knowledge, stimulation, and accomplishment. The author changed the word 'second language' in the original statements to 'English' to fit the study context. The four items of intrinsic motivation were as follows:
(1) I enjoy acquiring knowledge about the English community and their way of life.
(2) I have the pleasure of hearing the English language spoken by English.
(3) I experience the satisfaction of accomplishing difficult exercises in the English language.
(4) I enjoy surpassing my previous limits in my English language studies.
The second section was for the students' responses to 20 items of the 5Ts framework scale. These 20 items for five components of the 5Ts were developed by Renandya (2014) and modified by Wang and Lee (2019). Some of these statements are shown below:
I am motivated when my English teacher...
(1) Creates a low-stress classroom environment so I can participate without fear of losing face when I make mistakes.
(2) Uses a variety of activities to keep me interested and engaged.
(3) Encourages every student to be involved in the task.
the study finally performed regression analysis using the students' perceptions of the 5Ts components as predictors of their intrinsic motivation.
The participants scored each claim by selecting one of the five alternative answers from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). The author translated the item statements into Vietnamese in advance to avoid misunderstanding their meaning.
Data Collection
The participants helped answer a questionnaire for about fifteen minutes in the classroom. Before doing that, the author explained to them every single item, answered all their related questions, and assured them that their responses would not affect the assessment of any learning course in their study program and be confidentially used only for research purposes. The participants were asked for their consent once again before answering the questionnaire. The participants were asked for their consent once again before answering the questionnaire. Then, the participants received the questionnaire sheet for their answers with a pen. Although the researcher set no time limitation, the students completed the answering in about twelve minutes.
Data Analyses
This work analysed the questionnaire responses first by Cronbach's alpha and descriptive statistics. The Cronbach's alpha examined the scale reliability and the descriptive statistics to describe the student's intrinsic motivation and perceptions of the 5Ts framework. Then, the study conducted Pearson's correlation test to investigate possible correlations between intrinsic motivation and each component of the 5Ts. Based on the result of Pearson's correlation test,
Table 1
Students' Perceptions Towards Intrinsic Motivation
RESULTS
Reliability Analysis
Cronbach's alpha analysis of the whole questionnaire resulted in a = 0.879, supporting acceptable reliability for the questionnaire used in this study. Separately, the employed intrinsic motivation scale and the 5Ts framework scale also reached comparable reliabilities with a-values of 0.794 and 0.861, respectively.
Students' Intrinsic Motivation
The descriptive statistics of four items regarding the student's intrinsic motivation can be seen in Table 1. Accordingly, the respondents showed a high level of intrinsic motivation in learning English with a favourable mean value of 4.30, and 88.9% of them chose a strongly agree- or agree-response to the four items. Among the four items, "I enjoy surpassing my previous limits in my English language studies" of the Intrinsic accomplishment dimension received the highest mean score of 4.35. The remaining statement of this dimension and the intrinsic stimulation, "I have the pleasure of hearing the English language spoken by English", got the lowest mean score of 4.28.
Students' Perceptions of the 5Ts
The participants expressed favourable responses to 20 5Ts statements, as shown in Table 2. The respondents probably felt that all five components of the 5Ts were crucial to im-
Statementa
SD & Db (%) Neutral" (%) A & SAb (%)
Mb
S.D.
Intrinsic knowledge
(1) I enjoy acquiring knowledge about the English community and their way of life.
Intrinsic stimulation
(2) I have the pleasure of hearing the English language spoken by English.
Intrinsic accomplishment
(3) I experience the satisfaction of accomplishing difficult exercises in English language.
(4) I enjoy surpassing my previous limits in my English language studies.
Overall- Intrinsic motivation:
0.9 3.6
0.9
0.9 1.6
10.0 10.9
9.1
8.1 9.5
89.1 85.5
90.0
91.0 88.9
4.29 4.28
4.28
4.35
4.30
.682 .836
.706
.710 .733
Note.a Modified statements of those developed by Noels et al. (2003) and adopted by Wang and Lee (2019). b Sample size N = 110; 1 = Strongly disagree (SD), 2 = Disagree (D), 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree (A), and 5 = Strongly agree (SA).
proving their learning motivation, with mean values of 20 items in the range of 4.07-4.55. They showed the order of importance as Teacher (M = 4.33) > Teaching methodology (M = 4.13) > Task (M = 4.08) > Test (M = 4.01) > Text (M = 3.98). The top three places went to the following items of the Teacher component: "English teacher is friendly and approachable. I can talk to her not only about school work but also about other things related to my personal and social
Table 2
Students' Perceptions Towards Teacher-Related 5Ts Framework
life" (M = 4.39), "English teacher creates a low-stress classroom environment so I can participate without fear of losing face when I make mistakes" (M = 36), and "English teacher loves the subject matter and teaches it with passion" (M = 4.35). Meanwhile, the statement "The texts used in the class do not contain too many words or expressions that are beyond my reach" of the Text constituent received the lowest mean score of 3.69.
Statement9 : I am motivated to learn English when...
Mb
S.D.
1. Teacher
(1) my English teacher is friendly and approachable. I can talk to her not only about school work but also other things related to my personal and social life.
(3) my English teacher creates a low-stress classroom environment so I can participate without fear of losing face when I make mistakes.
(2) my English teacher loves the subject matter and teaches it with passion.
(4) my English teacher treats every student fairly and does not practice favouritism.
2. Teaching methods
(9) my English teacher uses different teaching aids such as images, videos, songs and movements.
(10) my English teacher uses a variety of activities to keep me interested and engaged.
(11) my English teacher carefully selects and structures learning activities that support the attainment of lesson objectives.
(12) my English teacher signals clearly when we are moving from one activity to another.
3. Task
(5) my English teacher provides sufficient assistance before, during and after the task.
(6) my English teacher encourages every student to be involved in the task.
(7) my English teacher explains the linguistic, communicative or cultural value of the task clearly.
(8) the teacher assigns us tasks which meet our different needs and interests.
4. Test
(13) the teacher can provide feedback, guidance and advice to me and assess me on an on-going basis, rather than concentrating on a single day, week or end of the term.
(14) my English teacher uses marking rubrics that are carefully calibrated to avoid subjectivity.
(15) my English teacher allows us to assess ourselves.
(16) the teacher gives me alternative assessments such as project work and other activities in the classroom, besides the examination.
5. Text
(17) teaching and instructional materials are varied, including print, electronic, oral & written ones.
(18) the materials used in class provide ample opportunity for me to learn what we really need or want to learn.
(19) my teacher allows us to choose reading materials that we are interested in.
(20) the texts used in the class do not contain too many words or expressions that are beyond my reach. Note.a Statements were developed by Renandya (2014) and adapted by Wang and Lee (2019).
b Sample size N = 110; 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, and 5 = Strongly agree.
4.33 4.39
4.36
4.35
4.22 4.13
4.23
4.22
4.05
4.00
4.08
4.23
4.09
4.05 3.93
4.01
4.32
4.06 3.88
3.76
3.98 4.16
4.07
3.99 3.69
.502 .705
.617
.711 .932 .514 .738 .771
.764
.790 .493 .712 .671 .907 .809 .512
.753 .870 .821
.777
.516 .736 .809 .796 .965
Pearson's Correlation and Regression Analysis
The results of the Pearson's correlation analysis are shown in Table 3. The student's intrinsic motivation positively correlated with their perceptions of all five components of 5Ts, with coefficient values in the range of 0.355-0.428. All Pearson correlation coefficients were positive and moderate. That means the student's intrinsic motivation and perceptions of the five components of the 5Ts framework were in the same direction and correlated in medium strength.
The result of Pearson's correlation test (Table 3) allowed this study to perform a simple regression analysis using the participants' perceptions of 5Ts components as predictors of their intrinsic motivation. The result of this performance is presented in Table 4. The standardized residual histograms of five dependent variables, namely five components of the 5Ts, showed all the means were nearly zero, and the standard deviations were 0.995. Despite being slightly skewed, they were not hugely deviated from a normal distribution. The students' intrinsic motivation accounted for 11.8-17.5% of the variance of the dependent variables (Table 4). Teaching methodology and Text are the two independent variables which accounted for the highest percentages of intrinsic motivation variance, 17.5% and 17.2%, respective-
ly. These results are consistent with the results of Pearson's correlation analysis.
Although simple regression showed all five 5Ts components could predict intrinsic motivation, stepwise regression revealed that only Teaching methodology and Text played a predictive role for this dependent variable, as presented in Table 5 and Figure 1 below. The accounted variance was 21.3%. However, while Teaching Methodology accounted for 17.5%, adding Text contributed only an increase of 5.6%.
DISCUSSION
Students' Intrinsic Motivation
This study aimed to evaluate Vietnamese students' intrinsic motivation and perceptions of the five components of the 5Ts framework and to investigate its link with these two variables. The results showed high levels of motivation and perceptions, positive correlations between students' intrinsic motivation and 5Ts framework components, and a predictive role of motivation construct.
Table 3
Pearson's Correlation between Intrinsic Motivation and 5Ts Components
Teacher
Teaching methodology
Task
Text
Test
Intrinsic motivation
.382**
.428**
.393**
424**
.355**
Table 4
Results of Simple Regression Employing the 5Ts Components as Predictorsa
Predictor
B
ß
Adjusted R square p-value VIF
Teacher Task Test
Teaching methodology Text
.440 .382
.462 .393
.401 .355
.481 .428
.476 .424
.138 .147 .118 .175 .172
.000 .000 .000 .000 .000
1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Note.aDependent variable: Intrinsic motivation
Task Test
Teaching methodology Text
.462 .401 .481 .476
.393 .355 .428 .424
.147 .118 .175 .172
Model
Predictor
B
b
Adjusted R square p-value
.000 .000 .000 .000
1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Note.aDependent variable: Intrinsic motivation Table 5
Results of Stepwise Regression Employing the 5Ts framework components as Predictorsa
VIF
1 Teaching methodology
2 Teaching methodology Text
Note. aDependent variable: Intrinsic motivation
.481 .328 .319
.428 .292 .285
.175 .231
.000 .003 .004
1.000 1.297 1.297
Note. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Figure 1
Histogram of Regression Standardized Residual of stepwise regression for intrinsic motivation as dependent variable
Dependent Variable: Intrinsic motivation
Mean = 2.05E-16 StcJ Dev. = 0.991 W -110
II
Regression Standardized Residual
The high level of present learners' intrinsic motivation is consistent with the findings of previous reports for Vietnamese students (e.g., Ngo et al., 2017; Nguyen & Habok, 2021). Ngo et al. (2017) found that English-majored and non-English-majored students were highly motivated to learn English. Nguyen and Habok (2021) reported similar intrinsic motivation in non-English-majored students. The result of this study also supports the finding of Phuong (2020), who investigated Vietnamese students' motivation in learning online English courses.
The present high intrinsic motivation may be due to the participants themselves as the students majoring in English. One should be interested in English-speaking countries, cultures and people to some extent when they choose a major in English studies. The high intrinsic motivation may also be partly due to the increased popularity of, for example, English songs and movies, television channels, and podcasts in Vietnam, accompanied by a higher financial capability of its people to afford related devices and services. Another reasonable explanation is the teaching-learning English mode in Vietnamese universities has been shifted from a teacher-centred to an integrated approach, which enhanced students' enjoyment of English learning (Su, 2007). The present students' high intrinsic motivation is valuable since, different from the extrinsic one, this type of motivation retains its effectiveness in the long term and is an impetus for learning success and psychological satisfaction (Deci & Ryan, 2008).
Students' Perceptions of the 5Ts
Previous researchers have used a self-report questionnaire to evaluate Chinese students' perspectives towards the 5Ts constituents and found no component to exceed a mean score of 4 on the 5-point Likert scale (Wang & Lee, 2019). The means of the student's perceptions of all five 5Ts components are higher than the reported values (i.e., Wang &
Lee, 2019), and the reason may probably be the different learning contexts as the discussion below. Among the five components of the 5Ts framework, the present EFL students evaluated the Teacher component with the highest mean. That implies teacher immediacy behaviour had a crucial role in motivating the participants in English learning. The reason may be the student's English learning experience working with qualified teachers in some courses and not-so-skilful teachers in others. The experiences may help the students to realize what teacher-induced factors motivate them in English learning. It is psychologically understandable that the students would be reluctant and even demo-tivated to learn in a class of unfriendly, unfair and low-passion teaching teachers.
The second highest place of the component Teaching Methodology may be explained by the fact that some Vietnamese English teachers continue to practice the traditional teacher-centred teaching approach, which may cause the students to feel unmotivated in their learning (Thompson, 2009). Thus, the students may compare their experiences working with such teachers to those with qualified teachers and know what teaching methods motivate them to study English.
The high means of the student's perceptions of the remaining three components of the 5Ts framework also may be reasoned partly by the unpleasant, if not disappointing, learning experiences that the students have had in school due to traditional teaching and learning methods where the teacher is an information provider and limited classroom activities (Thompson, 2009; Canh, 2017).
As mentioned above, all types of motivation in the SDT stand on the background of three basic psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 1985 and 2002; Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Dornyei & Ushioda, 2011; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Thus,
it is reasonable to hypothesise that students' motivation has some relationship with their perceptions towards the 5Ts framework since the two originate on the same basis. As shown in Table 3, the Teacher and Teaching methodology factors are the most effective motivating components. This result probably implies that among the three basic psychological needs in SDT, relatedness, namely social connections and tight concern for others, has more effect on the respondents than the other two. Meanwhile, the third place of Task and the fourth place of Test might be due to a more effective influence of the basic psychological need of competence. The students probably feel more comfortable and confident if they can successfully perform the classroom activities and the final learning course assessment.
The current high mean scores of perceptions of the 5Ts framework imply that most participants felt their motivation to study English, at least the intrinsic one, would be improved through the 5Ts framework implementation of the teachers. It is worth noting that although the affective order was Teacher > Teaching methodology > Task > Test > Text in this investigation, it might not be the same in other work. The reason is that, as mentioned above, the order may depend on the student's English learning experiences working with qualified and unqualified teachers. Namely, differences in participants' learning contexts would result in different responses to the 5T questionnaire scale.
Pearson's Correlation and Regression Analysis
Pearson's positive coefficients probably indicate that students with high intrinsic motivation felt more motivated by the teachers' 5Ts implementation than those with low ones. On the other hand, the present findings support the hypothesis that the 5Ts can enhance students' motivation, at least the intrinsic one, as a motivational framework. As shown in Table 3, among the five components of the 5Ts framework, Teaching methodology and Text possessed the highest coefficients in the relationship with the student's intrinsic motivation. That means, although the participants believed that all five components motivated them in learning English, they placed Teaching methodology and Text crucial roles in improving their intrinsic motivation. Appropriate teaching methods and teaching-learning materials may enhance the student's intrinsic motivation to almost 50%. To a lesser extent, together with tasks and tests, the teacher's manner, for example, friendly, warm, and impartial, can also cause an increase in the learning motivation of the student. Although some previous studies used different teacher-related factors from the 5Ts framework, their findings support the current Pearson correlation result. Kikuchi (2009) found that inappropriate teacher behaviour and teaching methods demotivated students in English learning. Falout et al. (2009) revealed that teacher immediacy was a crucial factor that affected English learning motivation. Quadir (2017) also showed that teachers' instructional style, personality, and
attitude were dominant variables affecting the students to study English.
All the evidence proved that the employed regression analysis was valid and that students' perceptions of the five components of the 5Ts could predict intrinsic motivation. The positive constants and coefficients indicate that increasing the students' perceptions of the 5Ts framework will increase intrinsic motivation. Combining these regression results with the correlation findings discussed above implies that the English teacher will face a challenge working with low levels of intrinsic motivation because even good practice in teaching strategy according to the 5Ts framework still motivates such students not much. These findings mean that, for effective teaching, perhaps the teacher should apply an added approach to enhance intrinsic motivation, at least for the students with low levels, parallel with the 5Ts for the whole class.
Dornyei and Ushioda (2013) proposed that learning motivation, student autonomy, and language learning achievement interact in a cyclic causality in which motivation is the cause of student autonomy and the effect of learning achievement. Assuming a correlation between the teachers' performance of the 5Ts framework and students' learning motivation, the former may directly/indirectly influence the student's learning autonomy and language achievement. Future research may be worth examining these hypotheses.
Pedagogical Implications and Limitations
Like any other group, the students of an English classroom differ. Individual differences often force the teacher to select a solution for an encountering problem based on the 'average' value. The findings of this study suggest the helpfulness of the investigation of the student's intrinsic motivation and perceptions of the 5Ts framework to improve teaching performance. While the used self-report tests of intrinsic motivation and 5Ts components are simple, they appear to provide many 'average' values for choosing an appropriate teaching method, task, text, and test, not to mention the teacher's appearance and mood. Furthermore, understanding the relationship between students' intrinsic motivation and the 5Ts framework components might allow the teacher to help enhance the students' intrinsic motivation benefiting them in long-term learning of the target language.
As the employed two scales were self-report measures, the first limitation of this work is possible response bias. The second one was those disadvantages associated with convenience sampling of the participants. The somewhat small sample size also may be another weak spot. Future work in this direction is worth considering, for example, a combination of a self-report questionnaire with qualitative measures such as interviews or classroom observation. As the number of students studying English as a foreign language and majoring in other fields different from English Studies is over-
whelming, recruiting non-English-majored students as the study participants may help obtain a larger sample size and avoid convenience sampling.
CONCLUSION
This work explored Vietnamese English-major students' intrinsic motivation and perceptions of the 5Ts framework in English learning by using questionnaire responses from 110 Vietnamese English-major students. It also performed Pearson's correlation and regression analysis to deepen understanding of the relationship between intrinsic motivation and 5Ts framework components.
This research revealed that students' intrinsic motivation and perceptions towards the 5Ts framework were favourable based on a Likert-five-point scale evaluation. In addition, the students' perceptions of the 5Ts framework components
REFERENCES
predicted their intrinsic motivation. The current finding implies that teachers can improve their students' motivation by doing well in the 5Ts framework. It also suggests that the teacher may need an added approach to enhance the intrinsic motivation of the students with low levels, parallel with the teaching strategy for the whole class. Last but not least, it is worth noting that this study has some limitations, including a relatively small sample size, possible response bias, and disadvantages of the sampling method associated with the present research design. It may be worthwhile for incoming works in this research direction to avoid these weak spots.
DECLARATION OF COMPETITING INTEREST
None declared.
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