CC BY
9- control the content of water used for the preparation of the mixture;
- During the hardening of the concrete mix, we must ensure that the water that provides its moisture (from the outside) does not contain salts;
- to ensure that salt does not pass through the concrete during the curing process as a result of moisture penetration from the surrounding objects (soil, etc.);
- Strong protection of elements of concrete structures located in the underground part from salts present in the soil, moisture in the underground zone;
- if possible, pre-identify areas with high salinity and use alkaline-resistant binders;
- Ensuring that in the manufacture of concrete and reinforced concrete structures there are no cracks, the protective layer of the reinforcement carcass is maintained in moderation;
- take measures to prevent the collapse of concrete, eliminate the factors that lead to corrosion of reinforcement;
- immediately identify unprotected areas of concrete structures and eliminate deficiencies;
- lifelong maintenance of concrete;
Hence, the long-term durability of concrete structures cannot be defined and determined by a single general indicator (criterion). Also, the compressive strength limit of concrete does not appear to be a sufficient indicator of its durability.
In conclusion, the following can be considered as additional measures to further increase the service life of concrete structures in local conditions;
- its problems of frost resistance, resistance to aggressive solutions, resistance to adverse atmospheric
influences, resistance to biological influences, resistance to carbonation and chloride-containing substances. It is also possible to strengthen the durability of concrete structures by the following important measures taken during the preparation of its compound;
- selection of mosquito fillers;
- intensive mixing to ensure homogeneity during the preparation of the mixture;
- intensive compaction of the mixture during casting;
- take all measures to ensure the convenient placement of the mixture;
- maximum protection of concrete from the effects of alkaline environment;
- In the future, the concrete structure can be achieved by organizing the necessary periodic maintenance.
In short, to ensure the long-term durability of concrete structures, we need to understand the duration of its resistance to external and internal influences during the service life of reinforced concrete structures and products.
References
1. Akramov Kh.A. "Design of enterprises of the construction materials industry." T. Uzbekistan, 2003
2. Bajenov Yu.M., Komar A.G. "Technology of concrete and reinforced concrete products". M. Stroyiz-dat, 1984
3. UzRST679-96 «Concrete. Pravila podbora betona».
4. UzRST 7473-94. "Mixed concrete"
RESEARCH OUTCOMES AND RECOMMENDATIONS ON CREATING ETYMOLOGICAL
DICTIONARY
Rakhimova G.,
Senior lecturer, Urgench State University, Uzbekistan
Yuldashev E.
English teacher, Urgench State University, Uzbekistan
Abstract
This article analyses about etymological dictionaries and some recommendations how to create them. Collected word origins from the etymological dictionary of English language have been divided into the thematic groups; analyzing different approaches and principles on creating etymological dictionaries, comparing them in different languages. According to this similarities and differences between them have been analyzed on the basis of lexical, semantic, lingua-cultural features.
Keywords: etymology, lingua-cultural features. recommendations, compare, word and phrase, dictionary, thematic groups.
Introduction
Today the English language is widely spoken throughout the world. It is the language of 21st century the language of informative technologies, so while describing the English language; first of all, it should be underlined that the English language is the mother tongue of the global media. To understand English clearly one should know not only its standard vocabulary but also its different styles, dialects, proverbs, sayings, phrasal verbs and idioms, as they used in any sphere: books, films, newspapers, formal speeches.
One, looking through some papers, magazines and journals, will discover the same language to sound quite different, because he will find familiar words with unfamiliar meanings. He will face idioms, phrasal verbs etc. In this case etymology of the words are vital to learn.
We have studied different etymological dictionaries done by different linguists. Such as Historical etymological dictionary of modern English written by M.M. Makovskiy, "Origins" written by Edric Patridge, Word and phrase origins by Robert Hendrikson, and
others. The approaches that they used on creating etymological dictionaries are nearly the same. For instance, words in the dictionaries expressed in an alphabetical way, there given the derivatives of the words nearly in all the dictionaries, which we have studied. There are other similarities, can be found in the dictionaries, however, in the process of working on dictionaries it turned out that etymological dictionaries, including different themes, i e thematic etymological dictionaries are very few, even they are not existed.
Why etymological dictionaries should created the-matically and the level of the learners should taken into the consideration. There we tried to give some reasons for it:
• Firstly, the user can easily find the needed word related to a certain theme. For instance, he or she wants to see the words related to medicine. He can find them opening the page, in which all the related word are given.
• Secondly, It saves the time, because the words, which the user is going to find, will be given structurally all together.
• Thirdly, the user can easily recognize and remember the word if it is given according to the learners level of knowledge. Sometimes they can have difficulties in understanding words explanations easily.
• Fourthly, the leareners can use the words correctly if they understand them.
The main focus of the present research work is the studying and analyzing the approaches and principles of creating etymological dictionaties on the basis of English language, so we have chosen the modern English etymological book named "Origins" by Eric Patridge. In the book are given particularly, modern English words and we try to analyse them properly and we tried to give our version of creating etymological dictionary. We consider that the principle of giving the words thematically and according to the learners' level in etymological dictionaries can be more effective rather than other approaches.
Materials and discussion
The etymological definition of the words related to the following common themes recommended in the present research work:
> Animals;
> Food and drinks;
> Fruits;
> Vegetables
> Clothing terms;
> Transport terms;
> Housing terms;
> Proffesion terms;
> Body parts
> School subjects
> Colours
The themes, the words related to the themes can developed again and other words can be added, We just tried to give them shortly:
Analyses and results
Animals
Ant-chumoli, in the etymological dictionary there given the following definition: ME- Middle English,
OE- Old English, ON- Old Norse OHG-Old High German,
Ant: ME ante, earlier amete or emete (cf the archaic emmet): OE aemete akin to OHG ämeiza a chisel)—and to Go maitan, ON meita, to cut. (G Ameise)—ä-, off+meizan, to cut (cf G Meissel, Lit, therefore, 'the cutter-off, gnawer' (Walshe).
Bear- ayiq, in the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Bear n: ME bere: OE bera, akin to the syn OHG bero (MHG ber, G Bär), MD bare, bere, D beer, OFris and OS bern- in cpds, ON björn and 'shebear' bera, Skt bhalla, and also to Lith , brown: 'the brown animal'; cf, therefore, Bruin at BROWN (G braun) and, sem, BEAVER. IE r, prob *bhar-: (the Skt bhalla app=*bharla), with var *bher-.
Cow- sigir in the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Cow, female to 'bull' (cattle): ME cou, earlier cu: OE cu, pl, whence kyen, whence kine. The OE cu is akin to OFris ku, OHG chuo, MHG kuo, G Kuh, OS kö, MD couwe, usu coe, D koe, and ON kyr; to L bös, Gr bous; to Skt gäüs—cf the Lett guovs: Gmc r, *kwö-; IE r, *gwöw-. (Walshe.) The cpds of cow present no difficulty; note cowslip, OE cuslyppe (lit cow's droppings).
Dog- it, in the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Dog (n hence v and the adj doggy): late OE docga: o.o.o., but prob echoic: cf the cant bufe and buffer (Sc cant bugher) and the mastiff's woof! woof! 'To lie doggo': from a dog pretending to be asleep, with familiar suffix -o. The adj dogged refers to bulldogs and mastiffs.
Fish - baliq in the etymological dictionary there given the following definition: fisher, fisherman, fishery, fishmonger, fishwife, fishy; piscary, piscator, piscatorial, piscatory, piscine, piscis; cf the element pisci-.
1. 'To fish—whence vn fishing and fishery (-ery)—derives, via ME fischen, fissen,
etc., from OE fiscian (cf OHG fiscön and OFris fiscia or fiskenia), itself from OE fisc,
whence, via ME fisch, fisc, the E n fish: and OE fisc is akin to OFris and OS fisk or fisc, OHG fisc, MHG visch, G Fisch, MD vise, (as in D) visch, Go fisks, ON fiskr;
to L piscis (s pisc-); to OIr iasc (for *piska) or aesc, with gen eisc, Ga iasg (gen eisg), Cor pisc, pisk, pysc, pysk, Br pisk, pesk, W pysc, Mx eeast, eease, OC *eiskos for *peiskos.
2. The OE v has derivative fiscere, whence E fisher, with elaboration fisherman;
Fish wife=fish, n+wife in old sense 'woman'; fish-monger=fish, n+monger, vendor, merchant; fish =fish, n+y, adj
Food and drink Cake- keks, pishiriq. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Cake, n, whence 'to cake' and the adj cak(e)y.
The ME cake derives from ON kaka, akin to MLG
köke, MD coeke, coec, coke (D koek), MHG kuoche, OHG kuocho (G Kuchen); the D koek has dim koekje,
whence E, esp AE, cookie, cooky. The exact connexion with 'to COOK', G kochen, is obscure.
Chocolate- shokolad. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Chocolate: EF chocolate (F chocolat): Sp chocolate: Aztec chocólatl.
Beer-vino In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Beer, hence adj beery (adj: -y): ME ber, var beor: OE beor, akin to OFris biär, OHG bior (MHG bier, G Bier), ON björr, pern also to ON bygg, barley, malt of (usu) barley being the source of beer.
Coffee-kofe In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Coffe, whence coffee-bean, -house, etc.; café, cafeteria, caffein(e).
E coffee, like the EF-F café, coffee, hence a place where they sell it, comes from It caffe: Tu qahveh (kahvé): Ar qahwah, wine, but also coffee. F café has derivative caffeine (Chem -ine), angli-cized to caffeine (or -in). Tu kahvé, cahvé, also becomes Sp café, whence the AmSp cafeteria, coffee shop, whence AE, whence E, cafeteria, a self-service café.
Body parts
Ankle-to'piq. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
: ME ancle, perh from ON ökla (cf OFris ankel or onkel, ankleu or onkleu); the earlier
ME form anclowe derives from OE ancleo, an-cleow akin to OHG anchläo (early Mod HG Enkel) and prob to Skt, limb. ell; elbow-tirsak. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition: An elbow, lit an arm-bend, derives from OE elboga, var of elnboga, akin to OHG ellinbogo, MHG ellenboge, G Ellenbogen, Ellbogen, and ON ölnbogi. For the 2nd-element, see BOW, to bend. The 1st element is OE eln, the forearm, hence an ell, ME eln, later elne, latest ellen, whence E ell: akin to OFris elne; to OHG elina, MHG elene, later—'the radical -n being taken as an inflexional ending' (Walshe), as in ME—ele, whence G Elle; to Go aleina; to ON alin; also to L ulna (s uln-), the forearm, hence the distance from elbow to wrist—an ell; to Gr ölene (s ölen-); cf OIr uile (gen uilenn), Ga uileann, W and Cor elin, OC *olen-, and, more remotely, Skt aratnís, elbow, ell, and several Sl words.
Chin-iyak. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
chin, n hence v: OE cin, chin: cf OHG chinni, chin, jaw (G Kinn, chin)—OFris zin-, OS kinni, Go kin-nus, cheek, jaw—ON kinn, cheek; cf also L gena, cheek, Gr genus, lower jaw, and geneion, chin, and Skt hánus, jaw; and, for sense-kinship, the cognate OIr gin. Cor genau, mouth. IE r, perh *khan-, varr *khen-, *khin-. (Cf Gr gnathos, jaw: perh for *genathos.)
Forehead-Peshana In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition: OE forheafod: the front (FORE) of the HEAD (n, hence v); kneel (pt, pp knelt), whence kneeler and kneeling.
1. Knee, ME kne, var cneo, OE cneo, is akin to OFris kne, usu kni, OS cneo (kneo, var knio), OHG (and Go) kniu, MHG-G knie, MD cnie, cne, cnee, D knie,
ON kne, also to L genu and Gr gonu, and to Skt —cf Tokh B keni and Hit genu, ginu, var genus.
Linking with para 2 is Hit kaniniya, to kneel, or bow down, with vn kaniniyawwar. IE r, perh *gnu-: cf the Gr gnupetein, to sink to one's knees.
2. 'To kneel', ME knelen, earlier cneolien, derives from OE cneowlian, to go to, be on, one's knees, from cneo, a knee: cf MD cnielen, D knielen.
Fruits:
Fig-anjir In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Fig (1), the fruit: OF-F figue: OProv figa: VL *fica: L ficus, fig, fig-tree: app of Medit stock (sem cf uinum, vine). It derivative fico, common in Elizabethan times as a term of contempt—as in Shakespeare's 'Steal! Foh a fico for the phrase'—whence,the C19-20 'I don't care a fig', recalls the MF-F faire la figue a quelqu 'un, to mock, prop, snap one's fingers, in a rude gesture, at someone; in L (cf Gr sukon) and It, F and E, 'fig' has obscene connotations, prob—despite the usu accepted etymologies—present, etym, in F 'Je m'en fiche de quelquechose', I mock at, don't care a fig for, something.
Persimmon-xurmo. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition: Persimmon is of Alg origin—cf Cree pasiminan, Lenape pasimenan, dried fruit. (Webster.)
Grapes-uzum In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Grape: by semantic b/f from OF grape (F grappe), a bunch of grapes: OF graper (varr craper and grafer), to gather grapes, orig to gather (? prop, to pull) with hooks: ? Frankish *krappa, a hook—cf OHG krapfo, contr of krampfo, a hook: cf CRAMP. B & W suggest that a bunch of grapes was, in OF, named grape because of the shape-resemblance of a bunch to a hook (OF grafe, grape).— Such cpds as grapefruit and grapevine are selfexplanatory.
Plum- olxo'ri. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Plum, whence the adj plummy, comes from OE plume: (with l for r) from LL pruna, f from L neu pl pruna, sing prunum: Gr prounon, easement of earlier proumnon (tree proumnos), o.o.o? from Asia Minor, perh Phrygian. (Hofmann.)
2. LL pruna becomes OF-F prune, adopted by E; the dim OF-F prunelle prob suggested the Bot Prunella, and certainly, the transferred sense of prunelle led to E prunella, a woollen stuff app orig sloe-coloured.
Pear-nok. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
perry; pyrus, pyriform.1. Pear, ME-OE pere, derives from LL pera, var of pira, f sing from L pira, pl of pirum, a pear, the 'parallel' of L pirus (genpiri), a pear-tree: o,o.o.; perh an aphetic derivative of an IE r *api- represented by Gr apios, pear-tree, and apion, pear. The ML form pyrus has been adopted by Bot, with c/fpyri-, as in pyriform, pear-shaped.
2. The fermented liquor made from pears is perry: MF pere: from OF pere.
Vegetables
Beet-lavlagi. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Beet: OE bete: L beta, akin to L blitum, which, designating similar plants, is a trln of Gr bliton (o.o.o.).
Cabbage -karam. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Cabbage: ME cabage, earlier caboche: by shape-resemblance from Old Picard caboche, head, var of OF-MF caboce: OF-MF boce (MF-F bosse), a swelling (f.a.e.: BOSS, protuberance), with prefix ca-, perh suggested by L caput, head.
Pumpkin-qovoq. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
The now only dial pompion, pumpion, whence, with dim suffix -kin, the E pumpkin, is a var of EE pompon, adopted from late MF-EF, which nasalizes popon, itself a var of late MF-EF pepon, from Lpeponem, acc of pepo
Tomato-pomidor.In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Tomato: tomatillo. The latter, adopted from ASp, is the dim of ASp, hence Sp, tomate, whence, with the famous Sp suffix -o, the E tomato; tomate eases the Nahuatl tomatl.
Potato-kartochka. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Potato: Sp potato, orig the sweet potato: a p for v var of Sp batata, the sweet potato: adopted from Taino (an extinct Caribbean language).
Clothing terms Hat-shlyapa, shapka, do'ppi. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Hat, n—hence v (esp in pa hatted), whence hatter, whence, through folklore, mad as a hatter (cf Lewis Carroll's 'the mad hatter'). Hat descends from OE haet or haett, akin to ON hattr, hat, and hottr, hood, OHGMHG huot, G Hut, hat, therefore to OE hod, E hood; prob ult to L cassis, a helmet (? For *catsis): if that be so, the IE r is perh *khat-. The E phrase a (or the) hat trick, orig and still applied in cricket to a bowler taking a wicket with each of three successive balls (from him), app arises in an old custom whereby, in recognition of his feat, the bowler received a hat.
Scarf-sharf. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Scarf: (1), pl scarves, comes—withf for p—from ONF escarpe, a pilgrim's wallet, usu worn Round the neck, OF-MF escharpe (F echarpe), escherpe, such a wallet (OF), hence, in MF, a broad band worn around the body: Frankish *skerpa: L scirpus, a reed (cf scirpea, a reed basket): o.o.o.
2. By metathesis, L scirpus becomes LL (*scrip-pus and) scrippum, whence ME scrippe, E scrip (archaic), a pilgrim's wallet.
Skirt-yupka. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Skirt: With those Gmc words, cf ON skyrta, a shirt, a kirtle, whence ME skyrt, E skirt: akin to Sw skort, skirt, skjorta, shirt, Da skiorte, skirt, skiort, petticoat.— Hence 'to skirt\
Trousers-shim. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Trousers: rare sing trouser: anl with drawer(s), but from archaic trouse, Ga var trews: Ga and Ir triub-has: perh from MF trebus, LL tubraci (var tibraci); perh of Gmc origin and meaning 'thigh breeches' (EW).
Transport terms Boat-qayiq. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Boat, n hence v: ME boot, var bat: OE bat, akin to ON beit, beitr and G Boot (modern only). Perh OE bat comes from ON beit(r), itself from ON bita, to split (up): cf, sem, 'dugout' (boat).—For boatswain, see SWAIN, para 2.
Bus-avtobus. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Bus: shortens omnibus, 'a carriage that is for all (L omnibus).
Plane-samolyot. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Plane: adj, n, v (whence planer), planish; aeroplane, whence 'plane (aircraft)—cfvolplane;—plan, n hence v (whence planner and the pa, vn planning), and planless;— planarian, planate, planation; plan-ula;—plain, adj (whence plainness) and n;— piano; piano, pianoforte, pianissimo, pianist; llano, llanura.
Helicopter-vertalyot. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Helicopter: helicine, helicoid (extn helicoidal); helicopter—see the element heli-; helix; cf the element helico- at heli-. The first two adjj are E formations from helic-, o/s of L helix, adopted from Gr helix, adj and n, (anything) twisted or rolled, (a) spiral, o/s helik-, c/f heliko-, whence the Gr adj helikoeides, whence the F helicoide and E helicoid. Gr helix and var helike derive from elisso, Attic helitto, I turn about or around, twist, roll (vt), akin to OE wilwan (wilwian) and Go walwjan, to roll (vt); elisso is prob for *ewelisso, r *ewel-, perh a vocalization of E r *wel-, varr *wal- and *wil-.
Housing terms Bed-karavot, yotoq. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Bed: n and v, with many cpds, all are obvious 'To bed' derives from OE beddian. itself from OE bed, bedd, a bed, akin to the syn OFris (and OS) bedd, OHG betti, MHG bette, G Bett, Go badi, and to ON bedr, a mattress, a feather-bed:C etymon, *bed; IE r, *bhod-, and a var *bhed-, with basic meaning 'dug-out' or 'hollow', cf L fodere, to dig (see FOSSIL) and W bedd, a grave. (Walshe.)
Blanket-adyol. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Blanket: AF blanquete: from F. blanc, white (f.a.e., BLANK)—prob influenced by MF blanquet, a white woollen material, F blanchet.
Carpet-gilam. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Carpet: OF-MF carpite: perh via It carpita (sing); certainly from ML carpita, var carpeta (pi), woolly cloths, from L carpere (s carp-), to pluck, e.g. wool: f.a.e., HARVEST.
Ceiling-shif. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Ceiling: v; ceiling; celestial, adj hence n Ceiling is vn from ceil, to overlay, to roof (a room), app from OF-F ciel, sky, canopy, from L caelum (s cael-), sky, canopy or arched covering, o.o.o., but, perh akin to celäre (s cel-), to hide, with basic sense 'a covering', or even to caedere (s caed-), to cut, to cut up, to divide by cutting up: caelum for *caedlum, the sky being regarded as 'cut up' into regions.
Sofa- divan. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Sofa: orig a divan: adopted from EF-F: prob via Tu sofa: from Ar suffa (uffah), acushion, hence a raised platform covered with cushions, Cf, sem, divan.
Proffesion terms Butcher-qassob. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition: Butcher: n hence v; butchery. The latter, orig a slaughterhouse, derives from ME bocherie, shambles, from OF-MF, bocherie, MF-F boucherie, slaughterhouse, from OF-MF bouchier, var bochier (MF-F boucher), perh (Webster) from ML buc-in bucida, bucola, a cattle-slayer, from Gr bouthytes, a sacrificer of oxen (Gr bous, L bös, an ox: cf BOVINE); Dauzat and B & W prefer to derive OF-MF bouchier, MF-F boucher, 'vendor of goat-flesh', from OF-F bouc, he-goat, itself from Gaul *bucco-: cf OIr bocc, he-goat, and see the 3rd BUCK.
Dentist-tish shifokori. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
The foll F derivatives of OF-F dent have been either adopted or adapted by E: EF-F,
whence E, dental; MF dentele, little tooth, whence both the EF-F pa dentelé, whence, anl, the E den-tel(l)ated, and the EF-F dentelle, lace, adopted by E, and also EF-F dentelure, likewise adopted; MF dentille, E dentil; F dentiste, E dentist', MF-F denture, adopted; the Her F danché, whence perh, by suggestion, the Her E dancetté,
Pilot-uchuvchi- In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Akin to Grpous, o/s pod-, is Grpedon (s ped-), an oar-blade, with pl peda, a rudder, whence Byz Gr *pedötes, whence obs It pedota (var -otto), whence It pttdta (-lperh from Itpileggiare, to navigate). Prati less convincingly derives obs It pedota from obs It pede, foot. Either way, It pilota yields MF-EF pilot, EF-F pilote, whence E pilot; F pilot, pilote, has derivative EF-F piloter, whence 'to pilot'; derivative late MF-F pilotage becomes E.
Secretary-kotib (a). In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Secretary, secretariat. secrete, secretin, secretion, secretory.L secretus leads to the E v secrete, to conceal, (in Bio) to separate; derivative secretiö, o/s secretiön-, becomes late MF-F secrétion, whence E secretion. The F secretoire (from secrétion) becomes E secretory. Chem secretin=secrete+ -in.
School subjects Algebra-Algebra. In the etymological dictionary there given the following definition:
Algebre: whence algebraic, algebraist: adopted from either It or ML algebra, from Ar al-jabr, elliptical for al-jabr w-al-muqubalah, 'the reduction and the comparison' by equations: al, the+n from jabara (tri-consonantal r: jbr), to bind together. Al-jabr, the reduction (lit, reparation), became, in Math, understood as 'the reduction of arithmetic to a better form'. (B & W.)
Biology-biologiya. In the etymological dictionary, there given the following definition: (element bio, life+ element -logy, q.v. at -loger) yields biological (-ical: cf logical at LOGIC) and biologist (-ist: cf theologist). Cf
Geography-Geografiya. In the etymological dictionary, there given the following definition: geographer, geographic (al). Geographic, with extn in -al, derives from LL geographicus, trln of Gr geögraphi-kos, which, like geögraphos (whence ML geographus, whence, with E -er for L -us, geographer), follows from Gr geögraphia, a writing (-graphia) about the earth (gaia, ge), adopted by L, whence late MF-F geographic, whence E geography. For -graphy, cf the element -graph and see GRAPH. Gr ge is the Attic form answering to Homeric gaia (cf Doric ga, Ionic gee), for *gawia, the earth, o.o.o.
Geometry-Geametriya. In the etymological dictionary, there given the following definition: geometrical), geometer (occ geometrician). Geometric comes, via L geometricus and perh via MF-F géométrique, from Gr géömetrikos; geometer is adopted from LL, the L form being geometra, var of geometres, from Gr geömetres; and both are intimately related to Gr geömetria (from geömetrein, to measure (metrein) land—cf meter at MEASURE), L geometria, whence— perh via OFMF geometrie (later géo-), the E geometry.
Psychology-psixologiya. In the etymological dictionary, there given the following definition:
The psycho- cpds, formidable in appearance, in formation, easy and simple, the generally known ones being: psychoanalysis: a SciL joining of analysis to psycho-; psychology=psycho-+-logy, discourse, from Gr -logia, from logos (f.a.e. : LOGIC); prob aided by EF psychologic (or psi-), modem sense only in 1754 (Bonnet)—from the G Psychologie of the philosopher Christian, Baron Wolff (1679-1754);
EF psychologic (psi-) derives from the modern L psychohgfa,comed by Melanchthon(1497-1560), who himself app took it from the modern Gr title , Psukho-logia, used, in 1590, by the G philosopher Rudolf Göckel (B & W; Enci It); psychopathy—psycho-+-pa-thy, suffering, feeling, emotion (cf PATHIC).
Colours
Blue-Ko'k. In the etymological dictionary, there given the following definition:
, adj, hence n and v: ME bleu (var blew), adopted from MF: OF blau, blo, bloe: of Gmc origin: cf OFris bläu, OHG (and OS) bläo (G blau), and—not itself the source of blue— OE bläw or 'Orig. meaning "bright"; cognate with Lat. flavus [betterfläuus, sflau-] "yellow"' (Walshe).
Pink-Pushti. In the etymological dictionary, there given the following definition:
(2), a carnation, hence both the colour (whence the adj) and the sense 'perfection, aparagon' (Shakespeare's 'the very pink of courtesy' and the Cockney's coll 'in the pink of health): EE pinke, pynke, pincke, pinck: o.o.o.: perh from the vpink, 'as if the edges were picked out' (Webster).
Green-Yashil. In the etymological dictionary, there given the following definition:
(adjective, hence n and v), greenery; greenback, greengage, greening.
1. Green, ME grene, derives from OE grene: cf OFris grene, OS gröni, OHG gruoni,
MHG grüene, G grün, ON groenn: cf OHG gru-oen MHG grüejen, to grow (green): akin to sep GRASS and GROW.
2. Green has an -ery derivative greenery and many cpds, mostly self-explanatory. A greenback is an A legal-tender note, with green-hued devices on the back. A greengage is a greenish-yellow plum, named after Sir William Gage, who, c1725, imported it from France: cf greening, a green-skinned apple, from MD groeninc (MD-D groen, green).
Violet-binafsha rang. In the etymological dictionary, there given the following definition:
Akin to Gr ion, *wion, is L uiola, ML viola, a violet (plant and flower), whence the girl's name Viola. Its adj uioläceus, ML vi-, yields E violaceous. ML viola becomes OFF viole, with OF-MF dim violete (F violette), whence E violet.
Recommendations:
Our recommendation is that, it would be better if the etymological dictionaries created thematically and the learners' levels should taken into consideration when making such kind of dictionaries. So we tried to draw the attention of English learners related to etymology instruction so that both the students' and the teachers' awareness about etymology of the words and etymological dictionaries can be raised and suggestions can be offered.
The size of the vocabulary of any language is huge. No person can learn or know all the words of the language. Individual people possess their own total vocabulary consisting of all the words they know. Words, like facts, make it difficult to remember out of context. Remembering greatly facilitated when the students have a body of information with which to associate either a word or a fact. That is why the best approach to learning new vocabulary words is through their etymologies. Etymology is the study of the origin of words. For words, interesting origins or histories will help provide a context. For example, a hippopotamus is a "river horse," from the Greek hippos, the meaning "horse", and potamos, meaning "river." Greek and Latin have had the biggest influence on English.
As it mentioned above, etymological dictionaries and practicing vocabulary in context, combining vocabulary with reading and writing activities, and providing the students with different lexical information about the words enhanced students' vocabulary acquisition. Keeping the pitfalls and limitations in consideration, the teacher of English has to take the work of increasing and developing vocabulary of the students, in the hands by integration of different forms of
vocabulary production such as Compounding, Affixation, Clipping, Portmanteau, Acronyms and Onomatopoeia helped an engineering student to learn and retain vocabulary for future.
Learning and analyzing etymological dictionaries is not only about word formation it is also about word origination. As we analyzed The English language's etymological dictionaries, we tried to study English word origins. By learning etymology of English, it turned out that Most of English words borrowed from Latin and Greek languages. That is why we tried to some Latin and Greek roots such as -dict, -gress, -jest, -chron, -dem, -morph and others.These origins are very helpful for learners who are going to enrich their vocabulary. With the help of these word roots one can make up other word for instance: Dict: contradict, dictate, diction, edict, predict, Dem: democracy, demography, demagogue, endemic, pandemic.
Conclusion
Recently, there has been an increased awareness of the role of vocabulary acquisition. Learning the lexicon systematically and etymologically helps the language learner their knowledge of vocabulary and retain that amount of words for longer period of time. It is true that the systematic way of increasing one's vocabulary is to assign some reading materials for him/her so that s/he learns and retains some words little by little and during a longer period of time, But it should also be remembered that language learners generally lack the sufficient time for acquiring and learning the new words. Etymology, which is the most encouraging effective and systematic way of enhancing vocabulary is the key element here. Word origin are vital to consider in any field of a language.
The approaches and principles on creating etymological dictionaries of English are very similar to each other. As it is mentioned above, they are made alphabetically, the derivations are given and the other similar features are given in the dictionaries. That is why we tried to give our version of etymological dictionary. Among the analyzed dictionaries there are very few etymological dictionaries according to the different themes aren't even existed. The themes such as, Animals; Food and drinks; Fruits; Vegetables, Clothing terms; Transport terms; Housing terms; Proffesion terms; Body parts School subjects Colours included to it. The etymological definitions of some words of these themes given in the research work.
As we discussed above that word-origins make the language simpler and makes the lively atmosphere among the native speakers or the language learners. They make each language more individual, colorful and rich. They reflect past history of the nation, its tradition, customs and heritage of the countries. Analyzing the results of the accomplished practical and theoretical research we came to a conclusion that the use of etymological dictionaries isn't only an interesting theme for research but also, creatively used in learning a foreign language, critical thinking, creatively and resourcefulness in learners of all ages. Moreover, the learning process of word origins of foreign language is challenging, because while a learner is analyzing a particular word, for sure he is interested in the origin of the word and
the reason of using it in concerned situations. These are the points of the essence of etymology. Studies have shown that using etymological dictionaries in education helps students increase their vocabulary and comprehension.
Among the fundamental works on etymology, if we include etymological dictionaries, the most widespread studies aren't based on the principle of different thematic groups (names of birds, fish, kinship terms, etc.). Among etymological dictionaries there are many works of great value; However, works of this type have weaknesses. Their ways of creating etymological dictionary are nearly the same with others, most of them are arranged alphabetically. The vocabulary of individual thematic groups, as a rule, is distinguished by exceptional variegation: here the words and origin, and later education, witnessed in one or two languages, and borrowing from both related i.e. languages, and from languages belonging to other language families. It is difficult to find the etymological dictionaries, which include different themes according to the level of the learner or reader.
The third chapter is also devoted to analyze the English words, which should be given thematically in the etymological dictionaries. The most common themes, which can be helpful for elementary and pre-entermediate learners English and Uzbek versions are given with the etymological definitions in English. The themes such as:
> Animals;
> Food and drinks;
> Fruits;
> Vegetables
> Clothing terms;
> Transport terms;
> Housing terms;
> Proffesion terms;
> Body parts
> School subjects
> Colours and others.
Finally, this approach can be useful not only for the students but also for the teachers of schools and others. Of course, these shortcomings do not at all indicate the unsuitability of this kind of work, both before and in the future they will bring undoubted benefits. However, without denying the importance of etymological research by these kind of approaches, one should also pay more attention to the etymological analysis of words grouped by a word-for-word basis.
References
1. Baruah T.C. English Teacher's Hand Book, New Delhi, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2006.
2. Dixon, Robert Malcolm Ward. Word: A Cross - Linguistic Typology, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.
3. Ibbotson, Mark. Cambridge English for Engineering, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
ЛЕКСИЧЕСКИЕ СПОСОБЫ ВЫРАЖЕНИЯ ВРЕМЕНИ И МЕСТА В СОВРЕМЕННОМ
АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ
Дрига А.А.
Адыгейский Государственный университет
LEXIC WAYS OF EXPRESSING TIME AND PLACE IN MODERN ENGLISH
Driga A.
Adyghe State University
Аннотация
До сих пор лексическим способам выражения времени и пространства (места) в художественных произведениях не уделялось должного внимания. В литературно-художественном произведении лексические средства наряду с грамматикой времени и пространства играют большую роль. Общая текстовая функция этих слов - указание на время и место действия изображаемых событий.
Abstract
Till now, the lexical ways of expressing time and space (place) in works of art have not been given due attention. Lexical means, along with the grammar of time and space, play a huge role in works of art. The general text function of these words is the indication of the time and place of action of the depicted events.
Ключевые слова: художественное время, художественное место (пространство), хронотоп.
Keywords: artistic time, artistic place (space), chronotope.
Художественный текст отражает события и действия в определённом пространственно-временном промежутке, невзирая на тип жанра данного произведения. Очень важно понимать, что время и место (пространство) являются основной формой существующей материи с философской точки зрения. [5, с. 1217-1221]
Исследователи-лингвисты рассматривают время и место в художественном произведении как отражение замыслов автора, изучая их одновременно, неразрывно.
В.В. Виноградову был свойственен целостный подход к изучению литературного произведения. Язык художественной литературы он рассматривал в широком филологическом плане. [7, с.10]
