CC BY
80
Greg Simons
Propaganda and the Information war Against Syria: The Latest War for Peace
War is Peace Freedom is Slavery Ignorance is Strength Slogans on the wall of the Ministry of Truth from George Orwell’s “1984”
Introduction. The global publics have been bombarded with messages, which are not remote from the Orwellian doublethink that has been illustrated above1. The notion that wars are fought for good causes, and ultimately peace, which when subjected to a thorough and objective scrutiny simply do not make any sense. Yet a string of recent wars have been fought in the name of ‘humanitarian’ concerns, most recently in Libya and the push to create the pretext for open war against the Assad regime in Syria.
Propaganda is seeking to exploit perception and emotion in order to create more favourable conditions for starting wars in order to fulfil foreign policy, especially with regard to ‘sponsored’ regime change. Public opinion is cultivated through the widespread use of presenting opinion as news. This makes the necessity to understand how this is done a critical issue in order to lessen the effectiveness of these campaigns. There have already been a number of works that have addressed the issue in a limited way, regarding the Global war on Terror2. However, there is very little material to date that is critical of the current events of the so-called Arab Spring3.
As a point of departure it is necessary to create an understanding of propaganda and information war as a concept and as a practice. This shall set the scene for screening and analysing media content on the Syrian conflict. News reporting from mass media outlets and information circulating on social media websites, such as LinkedIn, shall be categorised according to the type of propaganda that is being used in order to rally public sentiment and opinion to support a war against Syria.
1 DiMaggio A. R. Mass Media, Mass Propaganda: Examining America’s News in the “War on Terrof’. Lanham, 2009.
2 Bennett W. L., Lawrence R. G., Livingstone S. When the Press Fails: Political Power and the News Media From Iraq to Katrina. Chicago, 2007; DiMaggio A. R. Mass Media, Mass Propaganda: Examining America’s News in the “War on Terror”. Lanham, 2009; War and the Media: Reporting Conflict 24/7 / Ed. D. Thussu, D. Freedman. London, 2003; Journalism After September 11 / Ed. B. Zelizer, S. Allan. New York, 2002.
3 Systemni Monitoring Globalnikh I Regonalnikh Riskov: Arabskaya Vesna 2011 Goda (Systematic Monitoring of Global and Regional Risk: Arab Spring 2011) / Ed. A. V. Korotaev, U. V. Zinkina, A. S. Khodunov. Moscow, 2011; Primakov E. Blizhni Vostok: na Stsene I za Kulikami (Near East: On the Stage and Beyond the Link). Moscow, 2012.
Propaganda and Information War. Propaganda is a highly charged term that has a long history of development and application. Yet, it is also a word where there is a great deal of disagreement about its exact meaning, in spite of most people having heard of and has their personal understanding. Renowned researcher of propaganda Philip Taylor defined propaganda in the following manner:
“The deliberate attempt to persuade people to think and behave in a desired way. Although I recognise that much of propaganda is accidental or unconscious, here I am discussing the conscious, methodical and planned decisions to employ techniques of persuasion designed to achieve the specific goals that are intended to benefit those organising the process” 4.
From Taylor’s perspective, propaganda is a deliberate act by a group to advance its interests. According to Shabo5, propaganda can be detected through identifying four simultaneous elements in messages - the persuasive function, attempting to reach a sizeable target audience, the representation of a specific group’s agenda, and the use of faulty reasoning and/or emotional appeals.
But what motivates the use of propaganda? Referred to as the Father of Modern Public Relations, Edward Bernays, developed a tool for what he saw as bridging a divide in modern society. Quoting Buckle, a historian, “when the interval between the intellectual classes and the practical classes is too great [...] the former will possess no influence, the latter will reap no benefits6. Bernays identified PR as being that needed tool to bridge the divide. Walter Lippmann (1997) in his book Public Opinion, detailed the need to unite deeply divided public opinion as a means to create a united will. Jacques Ellul7 tends to agree with Lippmann that democracy needs propaganda in order for a country to function in a competitive system. This connects with Bernays’ characterisation of PR as a means to bridge divides in society. The ability and means to manipulate and form public opinion are becoming increasingly more far reaching with the advent of more powerful and instant information technologies and the accumulation of mass media assets in to fewer and fewer hands.
Herman and Chomsky identify a number of different filters in the mass media, which act as gatekeepers of all information passing through them. These filters are: size, ownership, and profit orientation of the mass media; the advertising license to do business; sourcing mass
4 Taylor P. M. Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day. Manchester, 2003. P. 6.
5 Shabo, M. E. Techniques of Propaganda and Persuasion. Clayton (DE), 2008. P. 5.
6 Bernays, E. Propaganda, New York, 2005 (original 1928). P. 126.
7 Ellul J. Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes. New York, 1973. P. 232.
media news; flak (negative responses to specific media content, designed to pressure a media outlet) and the enforcers; anti-communism as a control mechanism (in this case anti-authoritarian/pro-humanitarianism); dichotomisation and propaganda campaigns8. These filters represent a mixture of external and internal mechanisms. Not all censorship is externally imposed, for instance Rupert Murdoch’s open and public support for going to war in Iraq, serves to illustrate that the fourth estate in its corporate form is far from act as a check and balance against the abuse of power by the political elite9. And in some instances actually participates in those abuses along with the political authorities.
George Creel, the head of the Committee for Public Information, stated the need for a country contemplating going to war of the need to convince international audiences of the ‘self-less’ reasons for doing so. This is done in order to try and sway foreign audiences in to accepting the reasons for going to war are ‘good’ or at least no to actively resist10. One of the subtle propaganda mechanisms that is employed in news production is a delineation between what are essentially deemed as being worthy versus unworthy victims. “A propaganda system will consistently portray people abused in enemy states as worthy victims, whereas those treated with equal or greater severity by its own government or clients will be unworthy. The evidence of worth may be read from the extent and character of attention and indignation11. This tactic is very evident in the string of so-called Humanitarian Wars that have been taking place in the post-Cold War, and especially in the post-9/11 period, where the recent examples of Libya and Syria offer numerous cases of defining the worthy and unworthy sides in a manufactured conflict.
This is fitting with one of the rules of propaganda that relates to lying, it is better to lie by omission rather than by commission. This means, rather than lying directly, it is better to selectively leave unfavourable information (to the messenger’s agenda) that may interfere with the intended message effect12. In this case, if the ruse is discovered, it is easier to defend one’s position if something has been ‘accidentally’ omitted rather than a deliberate and calculated lie.
8 Herman E. S., Chomsky N. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York, 2002. P. 35.
9 Snow N. Information War: American Propaganda, Free Speech and Opinion Control Since 9-11. New York, Seven Stories Press, 2003. P. 36-49.
10 Creel G. How We Advertised America: The First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information That Carried the Gospel of Americanism to Every Corner of the Globe. Lexington (KY), 2010 (original in 1920).
11 Herman E. S., Chomsky N. Op. cit. P. 37.
12 DiMaggio A. R. Mass Media, Mass Propaganda: Examining America’s News in the “War on Terror”. Lanham, 2009; Taylor P. M. Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day. Manchester, 2003.
These aspects are important tools for building a narrative that can sell the idea of war to a public that may be reluctant to engage in yet another war, and after a decade (and counting) of irregular warfare. It is in cases such as this where the notion of humanitarian warfare has risen13. In the GWOT, the narrative was the necessity to go to war in a distant land, before war comes to the shores of the United States. The narratives in Libya and currently in Syria have changed and been replaced with heroes and villains. An oppressed, yet brave, defiant and democratic Libyan and now Syrian people aspire to have the same rights and privileges enjoyed by the West are the heroes of the narrative. The villains cast in this scene are self-centred bloody and ruthless dictators that seek to continue to oppress their people and benefit financially and retain absolute political power. The story line therefore is intended to produce a sense of empathy for the heroes and a sense of revulsion at the identified villains.
Current Events in Syria. An unnamed US officer spoke of defining the future of warfare in an article in a 1997 in the US Army War College Quarterly. “....we are already masters of information warfare. Hollywood is 'preparing the battlefield.' (We) will be writing the scripts, producing them, and collecting the royalties. Our creativity is devastating.”14 Below are a number of different propaganda techniques that are employed in order to base decisions on emotion and perception, rather than on sound and reasoned logical thinking. They are designed to exploit a number of different human psychological conditions and needs. The exploitation of fears and desires for example: the desire for popularity or the fear of being left out; the desire for wealth or the fear of poverty; the desire for health or the fear of disease15; the desire for love or the fear of rejection16. These personalised mechanisms can be very powerful motivators in a world that is increasingly perceived as being impersonal.
Other fears and desires are also taken advantage of, such as the desire for immortality/longevity and the fear of death17. Further mechanisms aim to generate empathy and sympathy, which can inspire generosity and giving18. This is often personalised, and motivation to help is inspired by the perception that through the requested help a positive difference can be achieved. Such pleas can also contain a sense of urgency, along the lines of help now, before it is too late. Thereby, this has the effect of reducing the ability to weigh the
13 DiMaggio A.R. Mass Media, Mass Propaganda: Examining America’s News in the “War on Terror”. Lanham, 2009. P. 179-215.
14 Lendman S. Terrorists Portrayed as ‘Opposition’: BBC Wages Propaganda War on Syria // Global Research.
30 May 2012. URL: www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=31126 (accessed 9 June 2012)
15 Shabo M. E. Op. cit. P. 77.
16 Ibid. P. 78-81.
17 Ibid. P. 88-92.
18 Ibid. P. 95-103.
pros and cons of the suggested course of action.
In some cases appeals are made that promote the idea or notion of civic responsibility. An attempt is made to try and capitalise on any possible benevolent feelings, and the course of action is promoted as being done for the welfare of a particular community or group. The call for civic responsibility is meant to bring about collective civic action, taking advantage of the sense of community or belonging. The ‘payment’ for engagement is a gratifying sense of personal experience and a reinforced sense of belonging19. The notion of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is an example of the civic notion, which is often invoked during selected civil conflicts erupt, often within the context of the world community (the world community cannot stand idly by and do nothing ...).
The final mechanism to be described is the provoking of fear and hostility20. A culture of fear can be created where an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust reign, making everyday problems and issues appear as a threat to our very lives and existence. This makes the target public more inclined to accept further propaganda that may be aimed at offering an apparent solution to tackle the source of fear. Likewise, the strong emotions of anger, hatred and distrust have the effect of removing logical and reasoned analysis of a presented problem. How are these mechanisms operationalised by specific techniques of propaganda in the current context of media reporting on the conflict in Syria?
Assertion
This is considered to be among the simplest techniques of propaganda, yet at the same time, one of the most effective. It involves stating a debateable idea as a fact, without any explanation or qualification. Sometimes a course of action maybe suggested as well21. As an example, democracy is under threat. Fight for democracy! A simple assertion is made with no justification or explanation, and a call for action is made. This implies the need for a certain level of credibility or trust in the source of the message or at least a desire to believe what we are told.
Among the assertions given and taken for granted is that the anti-government forces seek freedom from oppression and are democratic. This is contrasted against the Syrian government forces that are part of an authoritarian regime and are brutal. In some regards, the belief in such a simplistic assertion relies upon the target audience to believe a simple dictum that those who oppose an authoritarian regime are by default democratic in nature. There is no attempt to investigate whether this is in fact true or not, just bare faith in the message. In this
19 Ibid. P. 104-115.
20 Ibid. P. 117-123.
21 Shabo M.E. Op. cit. P. 11-15.
regard, it is a short step to characterise the Syrian people as being under threat by the Syrian government, therefore ‘humanitarian intervention’ is needed by the West to prevent this from happening. In the context of Syria, the assertion is that the Syrian people are under threat, we must do something to protect them.
Bandwagon
It is a technique that preys on a person’s desire to belong to the in-group and/or to be part of the winning team. Thereby making popularity a mechanism to enforce conformity to what is perceived to be the most popular personality or course of action. If a course of action is unpopular, such as a possible war, the prospect of ‘imminent’ victory is likely to make it more appealing22.
In one of the more reasoned articles on Syria, Thierry Meyssan, details the use presenting particular opinions as an agreed upon and universal truth. This includes using expressions, such as the international community, but without any definition or explanation how this particular community is composed. Additionally there is the use of ‘UN’ reports, which are in fact reports from selected experts that are working in various UN agencies (this can also be related to the testimonial and transfer techniques) and not issued by the UN23. The use of the UN is likely intended to imply a sense of impartiality and human values.
A hint at the composition of the international community is given in a RIA Novosti article that concerned a meeting between the US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and the Arab League Special Envoy Kofi Annan. According to the State Department, the meeting was to discuss a political transition strategy for Syria. “The greatest amount of time, the general focus of the Clinton-Annan meeting was on crafting a unified political transition strategy and the importance of gathering international unity behind a plan that can gain traction in Syria.”24 In this instance it appears as though Clinton and Annan represent the international community’s position on regime change in Syria. And if they are to succeed in their plan, unity is demanded as a pre-condition, thereby attempting to quash a reasoned debate on the merits of the proposals.
A lot of pressure has been directed at China and Russia for not supporting a Libya-style scenario of Western intervention that is based upon the vague notion of Responsibility to Protect (R2P). A good example of the bandwagon technique that used R2P in order to build
22 Shabo M.E. Op. cit. P. 18-21.
23 Meyssan T. Syria: What the Security Council Said // Voltaire Network. URL:
http://www.voltairenet.org/Syria-What-the-Security-Council (accessed 9 June 2012).
24 Clinton, Annan Discuss Syrian Political Transition Strategy // RIA Novosti. 9 June 2012. URL: http://en.rian.ru/world/20120609/173930121.html (accessed 9 June 2012)
pressure on Russia appeared in June 2012 in the Moscow Times in an article by Michael Bohm under the title “Putin has a Responsibility to Protect Syrians.” The highly opinionated piece urged Putin to accept his global civic duties by allowing a ‘humanitarian intervention’ to take place in Syria, with Russia needing to rejoin the Post-WWII era by rejecting “its primitive, cynical notion of sovereign democracy.” Bohm goes on, “most of the world’s nations have adopted the R2P norm as their guiding principle for global order and security. It is time for Russia to take this responsibility as well.”25 This is an example of not only bandwagoning, but also glittering generalities (global order, security) and name calling (primitive, cynical notion). There is very little in the way of logical reasoning to build the case to call for the desired action, other than some emotional rhetoric. Also questions need to be asked, which Syrians is Putin to protect, and from whom/what?
Card Stacking
This is a technique that involves giving an unfair advantage to one point of view, and at the same time, weakening other points of view. Information can be presented out of context or by obscuring important facts. An impression of a fair debate is given, which is reinforced by the fact that there is a superficial basis of sound reasoning and facts used. The opposition is represented by its weaknesses (through trivialisation for example), and the ‘desired’ course by its strengths. Censorship is considered to be an extreme variant of card stacking.26 Card stacking is a technique that relies upon the ‘sin’ of omission of unwanted or competing debates.
In terms of sources of information, the Western media have been often quoting the British-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. The main website is found at http://www.syriahr.com/, which is in Arabic. When the English language option is used, the reader is redirected to http://www.facebook.com/pages/Syrian-Observatory-for-Human-Rights/121855461256134. According to website, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights was founded on 20 May 2012 and describes itself as being a NGO. The group has undergone an ownership dispute. One of those associated with the site declared himself an official spokesman and called for foreign intervention. The ‘news’ site also does not cover atrocities or acts of violence against pro-Assad forces and civilians this is “not in their interest” 27. Other worrying issues, such as using social media, non-declaration of sources of finance to support
25 Bohm M. Putin has a Responsibility to Protect Syrians. // The Moscow Times, 6 June 2012. URL: http://www.themoscowtimes.com/opinion/article/putin-has-a-responsibility-to-protect-syrians/460075.html (accessed 9 June 2012).
26 Shabo M. E. Op. cit. P. 24-27.
27 Bennet I. Deaths in Syria: Counting Them (Politically) Correctly // RT. 9 February 2012. URL: http://www.rt.com/news/syria-death-count-political-875/ (accessed 24 June 2012)
the so-called NGO all have the hallmarks of a front group (a group purporting a certain public agenda, but has a hidden agenda). Yet Western media quote this as a primary source of information.
Allegations of massacres by government forces are eagerly snapped up by the Western media, often without question or verification. The sources are treated as being trustworthy, in spite of glaring conflicts of interest at times. However, when allegations are made by the Syrian government of massacres by anti-government forces the situation changes markedly. If the story makes the news, it is treated with a great deal of suspicion and with various noticeable caveats that are not applied to rebel sources, such as “massacre” appearing (rather than without quotation marks) or that the information has not been independently verified. At times a great deal of effort goes into denying or belittling the alleged massacre, such as gaining commentaries from rebel sources or applying rumour or suggestion that they were not civilians or that this is not what it seems28. There is no pretence at equal treatment of subjects and sources by the media, which is in some manner ‘justified’ by journalists taking upon themselves to identify the ‘good’ anti-government forces that deserve our understanding and sympathy and the pro-government forces that do not deserve such.
Glittering Generalities
A technique that involves the use of vague words, which go undefined, that are used to represent the position of the messenger. Lacking context or a specific definition these words are intended to evoke an emotional response from the target audience. Should the words be accepted and the emotional response evoked, it is intended to produce an environment of unquestioning approval for whatever is said. Popular words used include: freedom/liberty; strength; security; prosperity; choice; equality; change29. One word missing from this group, especially given the rhetoric of regime change, is democracy.
There is a very specific rhetoric used by Western media when they are describing the government and anti-government forces in Syria. It is essential to recognise the significance of this vocabulary as it goes towards supporting the narratives concerning the identified ‘good’ and ‘bad’ sides of the conflict. Words are loaded by their very nature as they contain subtle cues that trigger perception and emotions. For instance, the Washington Times refers to the civil war in Syria as an uprising. This implies a sense of legitimacy against an authority, a rebellion against an imposed injustice.
28 Mroue B. Syrian TV Says Gunmen Kidnapped and Killed 25. // The Washington Times, 22 June 2012. URL: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jun/22/syrian-tv-says-gunmen-kidnapped-and-killed-25/ (accessed
25 June 2012).
29 ShaboM. E. Op. cit. P. 30-33.
When the people that constitute the anti-government forces are given a description, terms such as activist (Financial Times) on an individual level or opposition in the collective sense (The New York Times) are applied. At times the two words are put together -opposition activist30. In addition, the cause of the anti-government forces is hedged with references to freedom and democratic principles. When engaged in combat, the antigovernment forces are referred to as being rebels, not as insurgents or terrorists (even though the tactics of insurgency and terrorism have been used). These words generate a more benevolent perception of who the anti-government forces are and what they represent. In doing so, the international public is more likely to empathise and sympathise with them and hold a negative perception of the government forces. This may render the public more receptive to later suggestions of generosity that seek to take advantage of any positive and empathetic/sympathetic feelings.
False Dilemma
Another commonly used tool of propaganda that reduces the complexity of a complex debate to a narrow number of alternatives, and where there is only one ‘viable’ option. The effect is to deny the existence of any neutral ground. Therefore the target audience is forced to choose the option that is labelled as being ‘good’, regardless of whether there is a good argument for doing so or not31. A clear example of this is President George Bush’s statement after the 9/11 attacks in the United States, when he declared either you are with us or against us.
The conflict in Syria illustrates the false dilemma very clearly, either you are supporting the ‘bad’ brutal and bloody dictator Assad or the ‘good’ work and intentions of the international community. US media, especially outlets such as the Washington Times, characterise Russia’s non-compliance with the international community as being driven by self-interest (as opposed to the ‘human’ values of the international community). “Russia would lose a source of revenue and a Middle East power base if Syrian President Bashar Assad falls — two reasons why Moscow has armed the regime and blocked votes to let the United Nations punish Damascus.”32 No mention is made of any possible US interests in the conflict, and only American officials are used for expert commentaries. There is no platform or ability for the Russian side to respond to various unsubstantiated allegations that
30 Peel M. Syrian Rebels Kill 80 Regime Soldiers // Financial Times. 4 June 2012. http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/fd088892-ae5c-11e1-b842-00144feabdc0.html (accessed 9 June 2012).
31 Shabo M. E. Op. cit. P. 36-38.
32 Analysis, Russia Clings to a Crucial Power Base in Syria Uprising // The Washington Times, 17 June 2012.
URL: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jun/17/russia-clings-to-a-crucial-power-base-in-syria-upr/
(accessed 18 June 2012).
are presented in this so-called analysis.
Russia has been accused on numerous occasions of supporting Assad with military equipment. The chorus of condemnation by the self-appointed international community grew very loud with the revelation of attack helicopters being shipped to Syria. Clinton stated that it would “escalate the conflict quite dramatically.” Another ‘senior defence official’ stated that Russia had “legions” of technicians in Syria working on military equipment for the Syrian government. This is in spite of the fact that it was the fulfilment of a refurbishment contract from some four to five years earlier33. Thus accusations are made without the necessary understanding of the background, which appears in the mass media, conveying the perception that Russia is aiding the alleged massacres committed by the Syrian army.
The Lesser of the Two Evils
Many dilemma techniques offer one ‘good’ and one ‘bad’ alternative, this one offers the target audience two ‘bad’ alternatives to choose from. This is used in an instance where an audience may be hesitant to adopt or accept a particular course of action, which makes the desired ‘bad’ alternative more appealing by introducing another choice that is even less appealing. Other alternatives are deliberately excluded and innovative thinking is discouraged34.
As with Libya, there is a chance of extremists taking political control from an
authoritarian regime at the barrel of a gun. Likewise, the ‘neutrality’ of many journalists is
questionable. Robert King, a photojournalist, when discussing the possibility of a religious government being installed stated that the rebels did not seem to be interested in doing so, but that could change with extremist sponsors becoming involved. “They are going to take help from wherever they can get it, and they are not wrong in doing so, because the Assad regime is killing their babies, blowing up their churches and mosques, they are humiliating them.”35 Therefore, King seems to suggest that any regime other than the Assad regime is the lesser of the evils, which violates the fundamental rule of a journalist becoming too emotionally attached to their subject and becoming a propagandist rather than an informer of events.
There has been a chorus of calls for becoming involved in arming the Free Syrian Army and other groups fighting the Assad regime. A series of propagandistic ‘articles’ by Matthew van Dyke (who has variously describes himself as being a “veteran of Libya” and a
33 Schmitt E., Landler M., Kramer A. E. Copters in Syria May not be New, US Officials Say // The New York Times, 13 June 2012. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/14/world/middleeast/copters-in-syria-may-not-be-new-us-officials-say.html?pagewanted=all (accessed 14 June 2012).
34 Shabo M. E. Op. cit. P. 41-43.
35 Barnard A. A Rare View of Conflict in Syria // The New York Times, 13 June 2012. URL:
http://lens.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/13/a-rare-view-of-conflict-in-syria/ (accessed 13 June 2012).
“Middle Eastern and North African Expert” on his LinkedIn profile) have condemned China and Russia and called for arming the rebels. He stated six reasons for why the West should arm the rebel factions: rebels shall get weapons from other sources anyway; the longer the war continues the greater the level of radicalisation; lacking conventional weapons rebels shall resort to terrorism; Islamist militants will die early as they seek martyrdom; by supplying weapons the system is more transparent and accountable; not supplying weapons gives Islamic militants a chance to supply weapons and gain influence36. These weak arguments do not stand up to thorough scrutiny. There is little to no accountability for weapons supplied to the Libyan rebels for example. They are going to get weapons anyway, so why supply the weapons if they can get them from elsewhere? If we don’t supply weapons they shall resort to acts of terrorism (which has already begin), so we should aid and abet terrorism in the name of a ‘good’ cause?
This is merely a defunct debate however, owing to the fact that external assistance in terms of supply of weapons, safe havens and so forth already exist37. It was also the case in Libya, when the arming of Libyan rebels took place, it was some time before it was admitted publicly, with a number of the above mentioned reasons offered as a form of justification. Both Turkey and Lebanon have been used as points for smuggling and harbouring rebels from the Syrian army.38 The shooting down of a Turkish military aircraft in Syrian airspace, together with a scheduled meeting on how NATO shall respond to the incident39 provides a possible window for NATO to ‘justify’ a military strike based on the grounds of Syrian ‘aggression’. This is in spite of the aircraft violating Syrian airspace, and Turkey’s active and open help in supplying weapons and safe areas for anti-government forces.
Another public spectacle has been the pretence at the options being considered to
36 Van Dyke M. Have the US and Europe Helped Arm and Empower Islamist Militants in Syria? // The Freedom Fighter Blog, 13 June 2012. URL: http://www.matthewvandyke.com/blog/arm-islamist-militants-syria/ (accessed
18 June 2012).
37 Khalaf R. Arming of Syria Rebels Gains Momentum // Gulf News, 9 June 2012. URL: http://gulfnews.com/news/region/syria/arming-of-syria-rebels-gains-momentum-1.1033593 (accessed 9 June 2012).
38 Syria Thwarts Turkish, Lebanese Attacks // UPI. 7 June 2012. URL:
http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2012/06/07/Syria-thwarts-Turkish-Lebanese-attacks/UPI-80841339079001/ (accessed 9 June 2012); Lebanon Rivals Agree on Syria // Space War, 11 June 2012. URL: http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Lebanon_rivals_agree_on_Syria_999.html (accessed 12 June 2012); Landler M., MacFarquhar N. Heavier Weapons Push Syrian Crisis Towards Civil War // The New York Times, 12 June 2012. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/13/world/middleeast/violence-in-syria-continues-as-protesters-kiUed.html?pagewanted=aU (accessed 14 June 2012); Syria Rebels Gain Ground With Foreign Help // Space War,
21 June 2012. URL: http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Syria_rebels_gain_ground_with_foreign_help_999.html (accessed 22 June 2012).
5) Schmitt E. CIA Said to Aid in Steering Arms to Syrian Opposition // The New York Times, 21 June 2012. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/21/world/middleeast/cia-said-to-aid-in-steering-arms-to-syrian-rebels.html?nl=todaysheadlines&emc=edit_th_20120621 (accessed 25 June 2012).
39 Hacaoglu S. NATO to Meet over Downing of Plane by Syria // The Washington Times, 24 June 2012. URL: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jun/24/turkey-caUs-nato-meeting-over-syria/ (accessed 25 June 2012).
solve the conflict. British Foreign Secretary William Hague laid the blame at the feet of Assad, and stated that Damascus was making matters worse by calling opponents terrorists, which had the effect of encouraging Syrians to take up arms to defend themselves. “We do not want to see the Annan plan fail, but if despite our best efforts it does not succeed, we would have to consider other options for resolving the crisis, and in our view all options should then be on the table.”40 Given the use of this newspeak on the eve of other ‘humanitarian interventions’ this does not bode well for Syria. Other advocates have been more open in their call for further external interference in Syria, citing the massacre in Houla as an iconic moment that proves the need for military action.
It is true that Syria does not lend itself to an easy military solution, and such a move would hold enormous risks. But there are ways of securing both international and regional legitimacy for the creation of a Nato-protected zone in the Idlib province near the Turkish border and possibly also in Dera’a, near Jordan. There, a more disciplined rebel force could be assembled and higher-level defectors would find shelter. Only then can the serious cracks within the regime that western governments have been hoping for become possible, and only then will Mr Assad understand that he must sign up to a transition plan that ends his presidency41.
This is purely opinion, which is being paraded as news. It is not about informing the public about events in Syria, but about agitation and propaganda that favours a specific course of action, and offers no effective counter-argument or alterative avenues. What is advocated here is little to do with resolving the conflict, but allowing the rebels an upper hand with safe havens and assistance. Russia has been understandably against foreign intervention and further inflammation of the situation, especially in the wake of events in Libya. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov stated that “external forces are pushing the armed opposition toward taking an irreconcilable stance and continuing combat actions, which inspires these opposition groups with the hope of replaying the Libyan scenario.”42 The Moscow Patriarchate opposes regime change in Syria, following the disastrous situation faced by Christians after the 2003 American-led invasion of Iraq and post-Arab Spring Egypt, where Christians have been targeted and persecuted. Almost 2/3 of Iraq’s Christian community have
40 London: ‘All Options’ Open to Handle Syria // UPI, 12 June 2012. URL:
http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2012/06/12/London-All-options-open-to-handle-Syria/UPI-29411339520761/ (accessed 16 June 2012).
41 Khalaf R. Time to Consider Military Options in Syria // Financial Times, 5 June 2012.
URL: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/d52fe084-ac15-11e1-a8a0-00144feabdc0.html (accessed 9 June 2012).
42 External Players Inspire Syrian Opposition with Hope for Libyan Scenario Replay - Lavrov (Part 2) // Interfax, 9 June 2012. URL: http://www.interfax.com/newsinf.asp?pg=2&id=338885 (accessed 11 June 2012).
gone with the demise of Saddam Hussein43.
Name Calling
Whereas glittering generalities uses positive words to evoke an emotional response, this technique uses negative and derogatory words to produce the desired effect. It has the effect of disparaging an enemy or opposing points of view. The target object can be attacked either directly (he is a crazy socialist) or indirectly (we have a great deal of respect for him. However, his views on the market economy require further scrutiny given his communist background)44. Even though this can be a crude form of propaganda, it is effective against unpopular targets.
An example of this type of reporting was found in the New York Times, on the attempts by the Assads to try and cultivate a more positive international image. The article is characterised by extremes in the depictions of Asma Assad (first lady) and President Bashar al-Assad. President Assad is blamed for the brutal crackdown that began in March 2011, without any reference to why this occurred in the first instance. He is described as being brutal and repressive. The various flattering and fawning articles from fashion magazines concerning Asma Assad are detailed with a certain sense of absurdity, irony and sarcasim45. Political marketing is the lifeblood of most politicians and political parties, including in the West. And like with the situation with the Assads, political marketing in the West is about working at creating image and perception, rather than something of substance. The Assads have been painted as the very representative face of all that is evil and the wrongdoing that is being done in Syria. Yet President Obama, as Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, is not being held personally accountable for the string of war crimes being committed by American troops in Afghanistan.
Pinpointing the Enemy
The issue of oversimplification of complex problems or issues comes to the fore when one single cause or enemy is identified as being at the root of it. This technique appeals to people’s propensity to prefer clear-cut and uncomplicated explanations. If the enemy is thought of as being an ‘other’ this is made an even more effective form of propaganda.46
BBC has been one of the most active news outlets in demonising the Syria conflict
43 Barry E. Russian Church is a Strong Voice Opposing Intervention in Syria // The New York Times, 31 May 2012. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/europe/russian-church-opposes-syrian-intervention.html?pagewanted=all (accessed 7 June 2012).
44 Shabo M. E. Op. cit. P. 46-49.
45 Carter B., Chozick A. Syria’s Assads Turned to West for Glossy PR // The New York Times, 10 June 2012.
URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/middleeast/syrian-conflict-cracks-carefully-polished-image-of-
assad.html?pagewanted=all (accessed 11 June 2012).
46 Shabo M. E. Op. cit. P. 52-55.
and painting a very black and white picture of what is a very complex reality. At times their reporting has crossed the border of journalism in favour of advocacy/propaganda. One clear example of this was exposed in May 2012 when the Telegraph detailed how the BBC had used a photograph from Iraq (March 2003) that showed a child jumping over bags of skeletons under the rubric “Syria massacre in Houla condemned as outrage grows” (May 2012).47 This particular example demonstrates, in the best case scenario that the BBC is incompetent and does not check it sources and engage in basic good journalistic practices. In a worst case scenario this is an illustration of outright deception that is aimed at provoking an emotional response from those viewing the article. This is intended as being another nail in Assad’s coffin in the arena of public opinion.
During or even preceding a war, a ‘good’ reason is needed to meld public opinion as a means of unifying public opinion and solidifying the public for a course of action, to achieve these ends an iconic moment is needed. An iconic moment is a particular event or incident that occurs, which can be so terrible that it has the effect of creating conditions that make the public much more willing to engage in actions or policy that they would not other do so. In recent US history the 7 December 1941 Pearl Harbour attack and the 9 September 2001 terror attacks provides two instances of defining iconic moments. These can later be used as a shortcut and rallying point for later action as an emotional cry - avenge December 7, for example.
Atrocities are a convenient and very emotionally based source for creating an iconic moment. Various unconfirmed stories have been carried in the Western media, including the government use of child soldiers, sexual violence and massacres of civilians.48 Fighting in the town of Dara’a for instance killed 17 people (some of them women and children), for which the Syrian government was accused of killing. Calls for war crimes were made, however, no such calls were made when an American Staff Sergeant in Afghanistan went from house to house killing 16 civilians in their sleep (including women and children). In fact, this soldier is not even charged with war crimes, but rather steroid abuse49! The Syrian government has been assigned the blame for its lack of cooperation and willingness to accede to the international
47 Furness H. BBC News Uses Iraq Photo to Illustrate Syrian Massacre. Telegraph, 27 May 2012. URL: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/bbc/9293620/BBC-News-uses-Iraq-photo-to-illustrate-Syrian-massacre.html# (accessed 25 June 2012).
48 Mroue B., Hadid D. Syria Observer Chief Says Violence Derails Mission // The Washington Times, 15 June
2012. URL: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jun/15/syria-observer-chief-says-violence-hinders-
mission/ (accessed 16 June 2012).
49 Lerman D. Bales Charged With Steroid Abuse Before Afghan Killings // Bloomberg, 2 June 2012. URL: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-06-01/alleged-afghan-shooter-bales-charged-with-steroid-use-1-.html (accessed 25 June 2012).
communities’ dictates50, even though the conditions imposed upon Assad leave him with nowhere to go and nothing to left to lose.
Very graphic and grisly accounts (both in text and images) of various massacres are given. The finger is often pointed at the government, which is based upon a mixture of rumour, guesswork and the testimony of anti-government representatives51. Some brief space is given to official rebuttals of involvement in the various massacres. But this is couched with descriptions that ridicule or destroy the credibility of those denials, such as Assad’s reference to a surgeon getting blood on his hands, but saving the patient in the wake of the Houla massacre52. The insurgency began in March 2011, in the wake of the finalisation of the conflict in Libya. The Houla massacre took place on 25-26 May 2012, over 100 people were killed. Anti-government forces blamed pro-government fighters, which were denied by the Assad regime53. The US tried to frame this as a defining and iconic moment in the conflict, and as a means to pressure Russia into accepting the US position and policy.
There are however, a significant number of unanswered questions and assumptions hastily made. The Russian Foreign Minister made the point “that certain countries were attempting to use the deaths in Houla as a pretext for a military operation against Assad’s forces, which have been, in part, armed by Russia. Lavrov also accused the head of the foreign-based opposition, Syrian National Council, of attempting to incite a civil war in the Middle Eastern country.”54 Russian reporter, Marat Musin’s firsthand account casts significant doubt as to the supposed responsibility for the massacre. According to Musin this was a staged exercise by rebels in the area as a means to produce an iconic event that was significant enough to force China and Russia to allow direct foreign intervention. Materials were prepared beforehand by the rebels in Chinese and Russian languages to support the fabricated video material. The attempt at deception needed to be revised owing to gaps of
50 Kirkpatrick D.D., Sanger D.E. UN Suspends Syria Mission, Citing Increase in Violence // The New York Times,
16 June 2012. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/17/world/middleeast/un-suspends-its-mission-in-syria-citing-violence.html?pagewanted=all (accessed 17 June 2012).
51 Gladstone R. UN Monitors in Syria Find Grisly Traces of Massacre // The New York Times, 8 June 2012. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/09/world/middleeast/syrians-bar-un-monitors-from-a-massacre-inquiry.html?pagewanted=all (accessed 9 June 2012).
52 Peel M. Assad Denies Regime Role in Massacre // Financial Times, 3 June 2012. URL: http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/1a22391c-ad83-11e1-bb8e-00144feabdc0.html (accessed 9 June 2012).
53 US Hopes Houla Tragedy Changes Russia’s Stance on Syria // RIA Novosti, 29 May 2012. URL: http://en.rian.ru/russia/20120529/173741996.html (accessed 9 June 2012).
54 Moscow Warns West Against ‘Hasty Conclusions’ on Houla // RIA Novosti, 31 May 2012. URL: http://en.rian.ru/russia/20120531/173770461.html (accessed 9 June 2012).
consistency between what was being said and what the video showed55. An article that appeared in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung merely served to increase suspicions as to the reliability of information coming out of Syria. “Over 90% of Houla's population are Sunnis. Several dozen members of a family were slaughtered, which had converted from Sunni to Shia Islam. Members of the Shomaliya, an Alawi family, were also killed, as was the family of a Sunni member of the Syrian parliament who is regarded as a collaborator.”56 These media reports tend to allude to a deception employed at Houla as an attempt to affect the policy of other countries (in much the same way as Libyan rebels used this ploy when they announced Saif Gaddafi’s capture during the Libyan war).
Conclusion. Syria is certainly not Libya, for a number of reasons. However, there are a number of rather disturbing similarities between how the ‘spontaneous democratic’ insurgencies against authoritarian regimes has miraculously appeared and how it is managed. Indeed, the word blueprint has already been applied to the Libya scenario for future ‘humanitarian interventions’ by Western military forces57. The Libyan military under Gaddafi, although seemingly strong on paper was in effect a paper tiger, Syria’s arsenal is much more formidable, hence the delay in launching a military strike58. The Western public is in no mood to suffer heavy losses in a dubious military intervention, especially with no end in sight to the decade long Global War Against Terrorism.
The results of foreign interference in Libya are still fresh, with increasingly disturbing reports surfacing regularly. Large stocks of weapons, from small arms to surface to air missiles (SAMS) disappeared from the arsenals of the Libyan army. Some of these weapons have already found their way to other trouble spots on the African continent, such as Mali59. Other weapons, such as the SAMS are available on the black market and are available
55 Lendman S. Heading for War on Syria // Freedom’s Phoenix, 5 June 2012. URL: http://www.freedomsphoenix.com/Article/112769-2012-06-03-russian-journalist-exposes-propaganda-lies-about-houla-massacre.htm?EdNo=001&From= (accessed 9 June 2012).
56 Von Rainer H. Abermals Massaker in Syrien // Frankfurter Allgemeine, 7 June 2012. URL: http://www.faz.net/aktueU/politik/neue-erkenntnisse-zu-getoeteten-von-hula-abermals-massaker-in-syrien-11776496.html (accessed 25 June 2012).
57 Dejevsky M. Libya’s Liberation Must not Justify a new Colonial Adventurism // Independent, 21 October 2011. URL: http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/mary-dejevsky/mary-dejevsky-libyas-liberation-must-not-justify-a-new-colonial-adventurism-2373606.html (accessed 25 June 2012).
58 Russian Arms Make Move On Syria Costly // Space War, 18 June 2012. URL: http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Russian_arms_make_move_on_Syria_costly_999.html (accessed 25 June 2012).
59 Wong K. Pentagon: Libyan Weapons Entering African Trouble Spots // The Washington Times, 18 June 2012. URL: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jun/18/pentagon-libyan-weapons-entering-african-trouble-s/, (accessed 25 June 2012).
to the highest bidder60, right on Europe’s doorstep. The arsenal of the Syrian army is much more sophisticated than Gadaffi’s, and the destabilising effects in the surrounding region may even be greater than Libya is proving to be at the moment.
There is the facade that all options are on the table, meaning that war is one of the possible options. However, when reviewing the nature of the propaganda in this latest information war being fought in the name of humanitarian concerns, it is obvious that war is not an option, it is the option. A similar scenario played out before the Libyan war, a move to head off a possible war in Syria has been initiated61. There is no attempt at any form of logical, reasoned and open public debate on the issue. The power of the argument is in the emotion of the discussion, rather than any solid and defendable basis.
Earlier in this article I argued that propaganda can be detected through identifying four simultaneous elements in messages, which were the persuasive function, attempting to reach a sizeable target audience, the representation of a specific group’s agenda, and the use of faulty reasoning and/or emotional appeals. The current situation regarding the facade of debate in the public sphere on the issue of what should be done to remedy the conflict in Syria easily meets all four of these criteria. Referring back to the quote from 1984, two of the three slogans stand out - war is peace and ignorance is strength.
Bibliography:
1. Bennett W. L., Lawrence R. G., Livingstone S. When the Press Fails: Political Power and the News Media From Iraq to Katrina. Chicago, 2007.
2. Bernays E. Propaganda. New York, 2005 (original 1928).
3. Creel G. How We Advertised America: The First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information That Carried the Gospel of Americanism to Every Corner of the Globe. Lexington (KY), 2010 (original in 1920).
4. DiMaggio A. R. Mass Media, Mass Propaganda: Examining America’s News in the “War on Terror”. Lanham (MD), 2009.
5. Ellul J. Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes. New York, 1973.
6. Herman E. S., Chomsky N. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York, 2002.
7. Journalism After September 11 / Ed. B. Zelizer, S. Allan. New York, 2002.
60 Johnson R. Missing Libyan Weapons are Reportedly on their way Hamas // Business Insider,
26 September 2011. URL: http://articles.businessinsider.com/2011-09-26/news/30203197_1_marketeers-sams-weapons (accessed 25 June 2012).
61 Kasperowicz P. Ron Paul Seeks to Block Military Intervention in Syria // Times 24/7, 19 June 2012. URL: http://times247.com/articles/ron-paul-looks-to-block-military-intervention-in-syria (accessed 25 June 2012).
8. Lippmann W. Public Opinion. New York, 1997 (original 1922).
9. Primakov E. Blizhni Vostok: na Stsene I za Kulikami (Near East: On the Stage and Beyond the Link). Moscow, 2012.
10. ShaboM. E. Techniques of Propaganda and Persuasion. Clayton (DE), 2008.
11. Systemni Monitoring Globalnikh I Regonalnikh Riskov: Arabskaya Vesna 2011 Goda (Systematic Monitoring of Global and Regional Risk: Arab Spring 2011) / Ed. A. V. Korotaev, U. V. Zinkina, A. S. Khodunov. Moscow, 2011.
12. Snow N. Information War: American Propaganda, Free Speech and Opinion Control Since 9-11. New York, 2003.
13. Taylor P. M. Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day. Manchester, 2003.
14. War and the Media: Reporting Conflict 24/7 / Ed. D. Thussu, D. Freedman. London, 2003.
