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6Пiдтвердженням дано! тези е те, що одшею з пох1дних функцiй, яка вщграе важливе значения е стабiлiзацiйна функщя. За рахунок зниження соща-льно! напруги та кiлькостi конфлiктiв досягаеться сталють системи.
Наслiдком такого тдвищення сталостi системи е бшьша прогнозованiсть динамiки розвитку системи, а отже - можливють мiнiмiзувати виявлеш негативнi тенденцп.
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Andreichenko A. V.,
PhD in Economics, Associate Professor, Associate Professor at the Department of Economics and Management, Odessa 1.1. Mechnikov National University, Odessa
PRODUCTS OF NON-WASTE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION: GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND
TYPES
Summary: A general description of products of non-waste agricultural production has been given in the article. The main types of non-waste agricultural products include: food, feed and feed additives, organic fertilizers, alternative energy sources, products for technical purposes. The emphasis has been made on the problem of atmospheric pollution of greenhouse gases by agricultural waste. It has been established that effective development of production of non-waste agricultural products is possible on the basis of balanced steps aimed at increasing the competitiveness of the enterprises perceived as a driving force of the development of the business entities of the agro-industrial complex. It has been proved that the intensification of agro-industrial production leads to rational use of the country's resources with a constant reduction of expenses by means of the application of the latest advances in science, technology, organization of non-waste production.
Key words: agro-industrial complex, plant waste, animal waste, poultry waste, biogas, organic products, products of non-waste agricultural production.
Problem statement. The agrarian sector is a special sector of the Ukrainian economy, because its development has a decisive influence on the standard of living of the Ukrainian people. According to some scientists, 1% increase in agriculture gives a 2% growth in the economy as a whole. According to foreign experts, Ukraine is one of the countries with the highest rating of the potential growth reserves of agricultural production. This is due to the fact that Ukraine accounts for almost one third of the reserves of black soil and 27% of arable land in Europe. Ukraine has a favorable geographical location, fertile soils, rich traditions of agriculture, a favorable climate, educated and hardworking peasants, a sufficiently developed transport infrastructure, as well as a fairly large level of sales of agricultural products [1, c.130].
The development of agro-industrial production is of fundamental importance for our state in the view of accession of Ukraine to the WTO, association with the EU. Taking into account the competition on the domestic and world markets of agro-industrial products, the unresolved world food problem, the solution of the problems of the effective development
of agro-industrial production in Ukraine, the growth of its competitiveness acquires not only national but also international significance.
Due to the fertility of its soil, Ukraine is one of the largest producers of organic food. Already hundreds of thousands of acres are devoted to organic agriculture, and agricultural officials and external experts believe that Ukraine can become an important exporter and help to meet the growing demand of Western Europe for such products. At the same time, the modern model of the functioning of agricultural production is not able to make a qualitatively significant leap in its development, as well as to solve the socio-economic problems of the village and to fully realize the strong natural resource potential of the branch [2].
This is hindered by a number of systemic obstacles that have not yet been overcome during a long period of agricultural sector reformation. One of which is a continuation of the sharpening of resource-intensive technological processes and equipment conducted by agricultural producers, primarily because of the difficult financial and economic situation that prevents them from the purchase of modern technology and the
introduction of resource-saving non-waste technology, and consequently, from receipt of high competitive products of non-waste agricultural production.
Analysis of recent research and publications. Agro-industrial production, its essence, received products have been considered by R. M. Bezus, P. S. Vyatkin, H. Willer, V. Hamilton, B. V. Gubsky, B. P. Dmytruk, D. S. Zakharov, L. Connoply, K. Lamin, M. I. Malick, W. Mitchell, L. M. Maksiszko V. N. Pisarenko, P. V. Pisarenko, V. V. Pisarenko, V.M. Rabshtina, P. T. Sabluk, V. I. Khomyakov and others. However, the generalization of characteristics of products of non-waste agricultural production haven't been provided as well as species haven't been distinguished.
The purpose of the paper is to provide a general description of the main types of non-waste agricultural production.
Basic results of the research. From the
processing of waste of agro-industrial products you can get over 100 items [3]. We distinguish the main types of non-waste agricultural production.
Food. An important aspect of raising the standard of living of our country is played by the organization of the release of new types of functional food products of high quality, of food and biological value using biologically active substances, which in the greatest number are contained in secondary raw materials of both vegetable and animal origin (grain and bakery products, meat and meat products, eggs and egg products, milk and milk products, sugar beet and sugar, confectionery, sunflower seeds, oil and oil products, fruits, fruits and berries, vegetables and and food melons, etc.).
Thus, in particular, the complex and rational use of the most valuable agricultural raw material - milk, is possible on the basis of its industrial processing for non-waste technologies with the full use of the dry residue (beverages, canned milk) or the separate selection of separate components (butter, cheese, cheese, milk sugar) .
Particular attention should be paid to organic products. With consumers' awareness of the relationship between food and health choices, organic production has grown substantially. Over the past two decades, the global organic products market is actively developing and offers an alternative to the consumption of traditional agricultural products, which is gaining more popularity [4, p. 30]. Organic production allows to realize the concept of balanced agrosphere development by means of socio-economic, natural-resource balance and aims at providing society with safe and high-quality food products, as well as maintaining and improving the state of the environment.
The non-waste technological systems of the agro-industrial complex direct efforts to increase the production of various raw materials, its rational use in the process of processing in order to obtain the maximum amount of biologically high-grade, high-nutritional food products.
Feed and feed additives. The need for the production of feed from agricultural waste was created
on the one hand as a result of the rapid growth of agro-industrial waste polluting the environment, on the other hand - an increase of the need for protein feeds.
Feeds make up more than 70% of material costs of stockbreeding. The deficiency of protein feeds leads to a large surplus of nutrients per unit of production and slows down the growth of animals. A large amount of by-products of biogenic waste, which significantly contaminates the environment, at the same time is a potential source of protein and carbohydrate feed for farm animals. Their unilateral transition to water, soil and air, by using the appropriate technology, can be partially changed to the natural cycle of organic compounds, which leads to the formation of substances suitable for plant or animal nutrition. Animals thus transform the secondary products (waste) of the ecosystem into animal protein for human nutrition. Animal waste not only enriches rations with protein, but also has a beneficial effect on the assimilation of other feeds. The use of waste as raw material for feed production by meat processing enterprises prevents economic damage from the non-use of such waste, promotes the strengthening of the feed base in the country and generates additional profits through the sale of feeds made from waste [5, p. 250].
Sufficiently attractive is the use of poultry waste as feed additives, since it reduces the cost of feed and the amount of harmful effects on the environment. The use of waste as feed can be determined by evaluating the composition of nutrients in waste to determine the type of utilization and the calculation of their value; cash benefits arising from the reduction of the costs of poultry fattening and the benefits resulting from the increase in the production of meat, eggs, etc .; the benefits created by monitoring the reduction of pollution [6, p. 86].
V. A. Yasenetsky, V. O. Ermolenko, and A. D. Garkavy point out that due to the saving of fuel resources and the limited use of traditional energy sources, an increase in feed production is possible with the wide introduction of economical equipment, energy and resource saving technologies, the use of secondary heat, unconventional and constantly renewable sources of energy, proper operation and maintenance of machines, reduced direct costs of energy, increased responsibility for compliance with fuel and energy consumption limits and norms per unit of production [7, p. 3].
Therefore, non-waste technologies help to obtain feed and feed additives for feeding farm animals, enriched with useful components and resistant to storage.
Organic fertilizers. An ecological alternative to the use of mineral fertilizers is the disinfection of environmentally friendly organic fertilizers.
Under conditions of modern agricultural production, when the number of livestock has declined sharply and therefore organic fertilizers have been produced and introduced, there is a need to replenish the organic part of the soil due to the use of alternative organic bio fertilizers as prerequisites for the creation of favorable agro-chemical, water-physical and biological properties of the soil [8, p. 23].
Organic fertilizers are in general obtained from manure with the help of special technologies. Manure waste after the corresponding technological processes acquire the quality of highly effective organic fertilizers, the use of which can increase the soil fertility. They contain the available forms of mineral nutrition for plants to be assimilated. Enriched manure contains in its composition a sufficiently large amount of ammonium Nitrogen form, which can be fully assimilated by the plant in the year of introduction [9, p. 88, 98]. Consequently, ecologically safe competitive organic fertilizers that improve the soil fertility, minimize the negative impact on the environment, are obtained at the outlet.
Products of technical purpose are made by non-waste processing of livestock, plant growing, poultry farming. So, from animal bones, technical fat is produced for the adhesive gelatine industry, from leather raw materials - technical fat for light industry; from milk whey - ethyl alcohol technical; from husk grain-processing, oil-fat industry - fuel materials; from tomato seeds - technical grease; from fusel oil -isobutyl alcohol, nitrocellulose varnishes; from molasses - paints, glue, solvents.
Alternative energy sources. Taking into account the lack of traditional types of fuel in Ukraine, state energy policy prefers to increase energy efficiency and use of energy from renewable and alternative sources [10]. Using bioenergy will reduce the cost of agricultural products and increase the level of energy independence of the state.
The significant dependence of the Ukrainian economy on external sources of fuel and energy resources and the high energy intensity of production of most industrial products require the search for new reserves for increasing the energy potential of the country as a whole and of individual regions in particular. One of these reserves is an increase of the efficiency of the waste use (secondary raw materials) in the direction of increasing of volumes of energy resources. At the same time, an increase of the energy efficiency of economic development of natural resources potential should meet the requirements of environmental safety, not exhausting and balanced nature use [11, p. 4].
Among the priority tasks in the field of renewable energy sources as the basis for the future of environmentally safe energy and energy independence of Ukraine is the development and financing of new non-waste technologies for bio-diesel utilization on the basis of the use of ethanol (instead of over-eco bituminous methanol), as well as biodiesel on the basis of bioethanol. The European Commission noted that in 2020, one fifth of the energy in Europe will be produced from environmentally firendly energy sources [12].
A turning point for renewable energy was the UN climate conference in 2015 in Paris. It has firmly confirmed what has long been discussed in the political ranks: the rapid and global transition to renewable energy technologies offers realistic conditions for sustainable development and will avoid catastrophic climate change. Since renewable energy is crucial for reaching the climatic and sustainable development
goals, governments have changed the task from defining what needs to be done, to determining how this can be achieved [13, p.13].
Biomass is a renewable source of energy and causes difficulties if it is not used. A rapid increase in the number and variety of biomass can cause difficulties, since biomass of rotting waste emits methane and filtrate, and open burning of dry biomass for the purification of land, leads to the release of carbon dioxide and other pollutants and poses a threat to agricultural facilities. Therefore, a proper processing and utilization of agricultural production waste is necessary to reverse the impact of waste on climate change, pollution of water and soil and local air pollution. The use of agricultural production biomass for energy production raises not only the reduction of dependence on fossil fuels, but also contributes to the achievement of energy independence of the country and mitigation of climate change [2].
The analysis of world experience shows that the development of biofuel production is most appropriate on the basis of oilseeds - biodiesel fuel; on the basis of alcohol-containing components - bioethanol; plant material and animal waste - biogas.
The advantages of biofuel production with application of non-waste technologies are:
- utilization of agricultural waste;
- economic attractiveness. The cost of biogas is significantly lower than the current value of natural gas, which tends to increase constantly. The energy price of 1 m3 of biogas burned in a biogenerator is approximately 2 kWh of electricity. The high share of natural gas imports, the high consumption of natural gas in the gross final energy consumption (~ 40%) should also be taken into account;
- creation of new jobs;
- fulfillment of the obligations of Ukraine to increase the share of renewable energy sources in the national energy balance (11% by 2020);
- reducing the negative impact on the environment.
It is worth noting that alternative bioenergy is strategically important from the point of view of preventing atmospheric pollution by so-called greenhouse gases.
Ukraine signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1999. According to it, it is envisaged that: an increase of the efficiency of energy use in the relevant sectors of the national economy; conduction of the researches, development, promotion of the widespread use of renewable forms of energy, as well as an introduction of new and renewable forms of energy, carbon dioxide absorption technologies and advanced state of the art environmentally friendly technologies; protection and improvement of the quality of sinks, such as greenhouse gases, the promotion of sustainable agriculture in the context of climate change, the introduction of modern environmentally friendly technologies, activities with aim to limit and / or reduce greenhouse gas emissions [14].
The Paris Climatic Agreement under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [15], was signed by 175 states, including
Ukraine, in 2016. It was agreed that the growth of global average temperature on the planet would be contained to a value not exceeding 2°C from the level of the corresponding index before the industrial age. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement stipulates that commitments to reduce harmful emissions to the atmosphere are assumed by all states, regardless of the degree of their economic development.
The production of biogas as a result of manure processing leads to the reduction of greenhouse gas methane, which is more effective in preventing climate change than reducing CO2 emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that, for 100 years, greenhouse gas activity has become 28 times stronger than that of carbon dioxide, and in the 20-year perspective - 84 times [16].
According to the CEO of FAO José Graziano da Silva, a reduction of methane emissions is one of the most cost-effective climate change mitigation strategies that needs to be considered in the context of increased productivity and improved food security. José Graziano da Silva pointed out that the agricultural sectors are areas where efforts to eliminate hunger and prevent global warming can unite, but we need to start with the improvement of production chains in the livestock sector. Easy-to-use animal husbandry practices and control of manure, as well as more efficient use of technologies such as biogas generators, can help the livestock sector to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 30 percent [17].
The use of alternative fuels from agro-industrial complex waste ensures the creation of clean, non-waste production, the production cost reduction, economically efficient use of secondary resources of the agro-industrial complex, money savings on fuel purchases for municipal boiler-houses, the development of small businesses, and the creation of new jobs in the countryside.
Conclusions. The pace of further economic development depends, among other things, on the scale of intensification of agro-industrial production, which determines the rational use of the country's capabilities and resources with a steady reduction in costs based on the application of the latest advances in science, technology, and non-waste production. With all its acuteness, the task is to find and implement sources of more rational use of raw materials, materials and other resources in order to achieve the competitiveness of non-waste agricultural production.
Competitiveness of products of non-waste agricultural production is the subject and instrument of competitive struggle on both the domestic and international markets. From the achieved level of competitiveness of agricultural products, it depends on whether a separate enterprise will succeed, whether goods produced in the field of agro-industrial complex of Ukraine can compete with similar products on the international market.
Efficient development of production of non-waste agricultural production is possible on the basis of balanced steps aimed at increase of the competitiveness as a driving force for the development of business
entities in the agro-industrial complex. This will contribute to the strengthening of the industrial base of the agro-industrial complex, the development of the industrial and scientific-technical potential of the country, strengthening of the financial position and living conditions of industry workers, preservation food security of the state.
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Арис Екатерина Тамазиевна МОДЕЛИ ОЦЕНКИ ОПЕРАЦИОННЫХ РИСКОВ
Аннотация:
Статья посвящена обзору моделей, которые позволяют оценивать операционный риск. В статье рассмотрены подходы к моделированию, предложенные Базельским комитетом. Все эти модели оценивают величину капитала, необходимую для возмещения потерь от событий, возникновение которых и есть риск. В рамках анализа операционных рисков возможны два вида моделей: причинные модели и модели капитала. Все модели оценивают величину капитала, необходимую для возмещения потерь от событий, возникновение которых и есть риск.
Перечень ключевых слов:_Метод базовых показателей; the Basic Indicator Approach; BIA; Стандартизованный метод; the Standardized Approach; SA; Усовершенствованный метод; the Advanced Measurement Approach; AMA; Подход внутренней оценки; Internal Measurement Approach; IMA; Подход, основанный на построении распределения потерь; The Loss Distribution Approach; LDA; Балльно-весовой или скоринго-вый подход; The Scorecard Approach; SCA.
Введение
Целью данной работы является обзор моделей, которые позволяют оценивать операционный риск. Обзор моделей основан на существующей на данный момент литературе отечественных и зарубежных авторов. Обзор будет состоять из краткого описания моделей, с учетом их актуальности на сегодняшний день и вводимых допущений.
Понятие рисков общеизвестно. Большинство операций в финансовой проводятся в условиях неопределенности и поэтому заранее их результат нельзя предсказать. Поэтому финансовые операции рискованны: при их проведении возможны как прибыль, так и убыток. Риск это невозможность уверенного предсказания результата.
Операционный риск можно определить как непредвиденные потери, связанные с неадекватностью и/или сбоями в процессах, вызванные человеческим фактором или внешними воздействиями.
Вопрос анализа финансовых рисков, в том числе операционных, на текущий момент достаточно хорошо проработан, математический аппарат позволяет давать численные оценки рисков. Цель данной работы - провести обзор существующих подходов к оценке операционных рисков.
Операционный риск: модели
Базельский комитет по банковскому надзору -орган, который предназначен обеспечивать крепость, полноценное функционирование финансовой системы, разрабатывать стандарты финансовой отчетности, модернизировать систему надзора за деятельностью банков и риск-менеджмент в банковской сфере. Для этого данной организацией опубликовало множество документов по нормам достаточности капитала, бухгалтерской отчетности и аудиту, эффективному надзору за банками, финансовым рискам и т.д. С точки зрения риск-менеджмента наиболее важными документами являются Базель I и Базель II [4]. Базель I фокусируется на рыночном и кредитном риске, оставляя операционный риск без требований относительного необходимого капитала. В этом смысле Базель II является улучшением Базеля I, ведь в последнем операционный риск вводится операционный риск как равноценный по своей важности рыночному и кредитному риску.
Базель II дает разрешение банкам разрабатывать и пользоваться своими собственными моделями для оценки операционного риска, чтобы создаваемые модели были более чувствительными к индивидуальным особенностям организаций.
