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DOI 10.14526/2070-4798-2019-14-1-159-167
Physical upbringing and rowing and sailing training in naval and nautical
educational establishments of Russia
Igor V. Zub1*, Victor A. Kurys1, Andrey V. Akimenko2
1Admiral Makarov State University of Maritime and Inland Shipping Sankt-Petersburg, Russia ORCID 0000-0001-9381-3761, [email protected]* ORCID0000-0002-6785-5287, [email protected] 2Lesgaft National State University of Physical Education, Sport and Health
Sankt-Petersburg, Russia ORCID 0000-0002-3904-0574, [email protected]
Abstract: Physical upbringing was very important in training specialists of naval sphere since nautical education appearance in Russia at the turn of the XVII-XVIII century. The history of naval classes, nautical schools, Institutes, higher educational establishments during 300 years proves close connection between intellectual, physical and moral- ethic aspects in educational activity. Materials. The main historical factors revelation, which reflect students' physical upbringing development, at nautical educational establishments of Russia. Research methods. Information sources analysis and summarizing. Results. Physical upbringing in nautical educational establishments in Russia was the optional, but compulsory subject as physical training lessons were held after all compulsory subjects. The program included gymnastics, outdoor games, dancing and fencing. In 1890 there appeared the program of extracurricular physical culture lessons introduction into cadet schools. In summer students overcame an obstacle course, learned to swim in surface water bodies. In winter students had an opportunity to use skating rinks and slides in the yard of the school. Apart from physical upbringing students went boating both rowing and sailing. They went boating in summer and this tradition still preserves. Boating provided not only basic naval skills development, but also formed the skills of team interaction, the ability to use natural powers: water and wind. And it is extremely important for naval profession mastering. Conclusion. As nowadays marine fleet ships have a lot of subspecialists, the complexes of professionally applied physical training are created for each specialty. However, special physical training is still very relevant, though ships and marine vessels have modern rescue equipment. Students at nautical educational establishments should know how to go boating, rowing and sailing, should know how to swim.
Keywords: physical upbringing, nautical education, rowing and sailing training, gymnastics.
For citation: Igor V. Zub*, Victor A. Kurys, Andrey V. Akimenko. Physical upbringing and rowing and sailing training in naval and nautical educational establishments of Russia. The Russian Journal of Physical Education and Sport. 2019; 14(1): 137-143. DOI 10.14526/2070-4798-2019-14-1-159-167
Introduction
Physical upbringing was very important in training specialists of naval sphere since nautical education appearance in Russia at the turn of the XVII-XVIII century. The history of naval classes, nautical schools, Institutes, higher educational establishments during 300 years proves close connection between intellectual, physical and moral- ethic aspects in educational activity.
Federal state educational standard (FSES)
for the specialists of shipboard personnel, navigators [1], ship engineers [2] and electrical officers [3] is unified for training both civil and military-naval fleet directions. In FSES Physical culture is included into basic subjects. Fleet service always demanded good physical training, as naval specialists have to work in conditions, which are not typical for an ordinary person: to be in confined space for a long time, to be far away from the family and work in terms of rolling motion and etc. The work in such conditions
demands developed physical and psychological qualities. During fleet specialists training great attention at physical culture lessons is paid not only to general physical training, but also to special professionally-applied physical training.
The main aim of the research work was to reveal the main historical facts. It reflect students' physical upbringing development at nautical educational establishments of Russia.
Materials and Research Methods
Information and historic sources analysis and summarizing is used in the research work. The research was held. It considered rowing and sailing training application for the students at nautical educational establishments of Russia. Historical approach provided the research object consideration as a continuously changing in time object. It gave an opportunity to make the conclusions concerning the role of rowing and sailing training during the existence of physical upbringing at nautical education.
Results and Discussion
Physical upbringing in nautical educational establishments in Russia was the optional. But compulsory subject as physical training lessons were held after all compulsory subjects. The program included gymnastics- exercises at mechanisms (gymnastic apparatus) and floor exercises, outdoor games, dancing and fencing [4, 5]. In summer students overcame an obstacle course, learned to swim [5]. At the initial stages of naval education knowledge was transferred from the teacher to a student, but in terms of education development there appeared textbooks and programs. Historian of the Russian fleet Zelenoi A.I. [6], describing education mentioned that there were no programs, no classes in their contemporary understanding and there even were no definite periods of training. The first naval practice textbook was published in 1804 [7, 8]. Naval practice program included boating both rowing and sailing. Newspapers had the articles concerning boating for young sailors, pieces of advice concerning sailing [9]. In terms of the reforms in naval education naval practice also transformed. In 1874 there appeared the textbook
of naval practice for cabin boys and nautical schools students [10, 11]. This textbook presented sea boats classification, sailing and rowing. At the end of the XIX th century fleet was equipped with boats and it influenced naval practice teaching. In 1880 the book "Sailing and steam vessels and boats control" was published [12].
Such historical personalities, as admiral G.I. Butakov, paid great attention to physical endurance of sailors. Created by G.I. Butakov military-pedagogical demands to the practice of teaching and upbringing, sports-mass work had a great influence on fighting efficiency of military fleet personnel. Physical training became the main part of military training. His student vice-admiral S.O. Makarov also considered that boating training should be obligatory for everybody, who is connected with naval profession.
Since naval education formation in Russia naval and nautical education were closely connected. Nautical educational establishments trained specialists for commercial (merchant marine) fleet and naval educational establishments trained the specialists for military marine fleet. People, who graduated from nautical educational establishments and who were navigation officers or skippers, didn't have to go through military service during the whole period of working on mercantile fleet vessels [13].
In 1699 "School of mathematical and navigational sciences" was founded in Moscow. It was the start for nautical educational in Russia. "Navigation college" was opened in Saint-Petersburg in 1786 [14], which existed till 1797. However, in 1805 with the help of merchants, who understood that for trade provision it is necessary to develop own commercial fleet, naval education in Russia was renewed on the basis of nautical classes of Riga district college. 3 years later, in 1808 a ship-building college was founded in Saint-Petersburg. In 1829, owing to minister of finance earl Egor Frantsevich-Kankrin, merchant shipping college was created on the base of the ship-building college. One year later it was in the authority of Admiralty Board and was transformed into the company of merchant shipping in terms of the 1st training naval crew (in 1854 the company joined Navigation school). Almost at the same time in 1834 Kherson merchant shipping
college was established. In 1842 independent skipper courses were established in Arkhangelsk and Kem [14]. The graduates of Kherson merchant shipping college served in military-marine fleet as conductors of navigation officers' body [15].
Since 60-s of the XX th century progressive representatives of the Russian merchant shipping underlined the problem of creating a native system of training people for merchant marine fleet. In 1867 a special committee adopted a new nautical classes regulation. On the basis of this regulation merchant shipping classes were established in 1898 in Odessa on the 1st of July in Odessa Merchant College. In 1901 they were transformed into Odessa Merchant Shipping College. The second educational establishment for training seagoing specialists became merchant nautical college. It was established on the 2nd of June, 1899 in Arkhangelsk.
In 1876 owing to vice-admiral of Saint-Petersburg river yacht-club A.I. Lera it was decided to establish Saint-Petersburg nautical classes [16]. Nautical classes changed their status and name. Nowadays they are transformed into State University of Marine and River Fleet named after admiral S.O. Makarov.
During the whole period of naval education formation in Russia great attention was paid to physical upbringing of students. Even in the first nautical classes (since 1805) students studied the boat parts, went in for rowing, got the skills ofboating, sailing, cannon shooting, studied gun techniques [13]. Shooting was also included into physical upbringing program. As the history shows nautical education goes close to naval education. When F.F. Ushakov was the student of Naval nobility cadet corps (1761-1766) the list of the optional subjects included fencing and dancing [17]. It is mentioned that during this period the program included rowing and sailing on boats. Obviously, it is connected with the fact that rowing and sailing training was included into naval practice program. It is proved by later sources, where the program of boating lessons was presented. These boating lessons included rowing and sailing, boating, knotting and splicing [18, 19]. Almost the same naval practice program was during specialists training for civil fleet [20]. In 1844 gymnastics was introduced in Navigation
school, since 1853 dancing lessons were introduced for senior students and since 1860 dancing became obligatory for all students. Gymnastic lessons were canceled. It was done to give students much time for homework. For physical development in winter students had a skating-rink and slides in the yard of the college. In summer classes went to Hospital caserns at Oranienbaum bank. There they practiced gymnastics. Then gymnastics lessons were returned to Navigation school. But they were extracurricular activity. During practical lessons students went boating, sailing and rowing. They learned to control the boat [6].
According to the annual reports of educational establishments command authority [21, 22, 23, 24, 25] it is seen that great attention was paid to cadets' physical development in spite of the fact that there were no adopted physical upbringing programs. According to the reports it was considered that physical upbringing provides moral upbringing. Gymnastics lessons were held 4 times a week. Gymnastics was held according to sir Deron's system. He held the lessons himself. When sir Deron went abroad the following people held the lessons: the main administrator of gymnastic education - lieutenant commander Khomchenko and his assistant was warrant officer of fleet navigation officers' corpus Afanasev.
Teaching gymnastics included two units:
1) "Exercises at mechanisms"- rope climbing, when the rope is vertical and at grade; masts and ladders climbing. Also the program included horse vault and a shaft, inclined plane running, walking along the horizontal mast;
2) "Free calisthenics and rifle exercises": hands and body flexion, jumps, swimming, chasseurs step and marching learning.
Physical training schedule for a week was the following:
- Monday since 12.00 till 13.00 - teaching gymnastics. The lessons were held in a special room of Admiralty;
- Tuesday, Wednesday since 11.30 till 12.30 - gymnastics;
- Wednesday since 13.00 till 14.30 -shooting range;
- Wednesday since 18.00 till 20.00 - some
cadets go to dancing;
- Thursday since 11.30 till 12.30 - apart from two senior classes, cadets have gymnastics;
- Friday - two of the shifts since 11.30 till 12.30 have dancing lessons;
- Friday since 13.00 till 14.30 - the corresponding shift has a shooting range.
Dancing. The teacher of dancing was from Gatchina Orphan Institute- governorate secretary Lebedev. Cadets had dancing two times a week.
In summer cadets went swimming in special places. During free time they played different games outdoors. In the middle of the XIX century at naval corps there were subjects some of which were extracurricular, but optional ones: astronomical observations, drawing, gun practice. Some of them are directed toward students' physical developmenttarget practice, gymnastics, dancing, fencing. Naval practice, which starts from the second course, includes rowing and sailing [26, 27].
V.A. Rimskiy -Korsakov, who was the head of Naval corps since 1861, paid great attention to naval education, to the future naval officers' many-sided upbringing. He paid special attention to educational-upbringing influence of physical exercises on students - sailing and trips by sailing vessels along rivers, lakes and seas, swimming and other kinds of sport. He offered to introduce these exercises as obligatory elements of physical training [28, 29]. Boating developed students' different qualities, gives practical knowledge, forms the ability to control the vessels in any circumstances. It helped to be ready for any situation during naval service [30]. When students were on board the ship during еру training cruise they could choose whether to come ashore or to go sailing and rowing [31]. Also the program for military educational establishments and gymnasiums had the units concerning hand fire arms and cold steel use, its application and care [31].
Physical upbringing was included into the structure of that time education. Some social figures offered to create naval floating school for training naval specialists. In these schools, they wanted to provide students not only physical training subjects, but the opportunity to climb Jacob's ladder. It was offered to introduce everyday fourth lesson (1 hour) for gymnastic exercises, including dancing [21].
But in private navigation schools, the situation was different. Students there had swimming qualification and very often the whole teaching staff included one teacher. He taught theoretical subjects, gave practical knowledge and provided moral and physical upbringing [23].
In order to check the skills of boating sailing matches were held. Only students controlled the boats. They had to clean the boat, change rigging and fix the sail themselves. The time of lessons was the following: 1 hour and 45 minutes was given to sailing; 15 minutes was given to teaching rowing. The lessons were held in the morning and in the afternoon. In the evening students went for a short-term sea voyage under the control of the officer. Boats were accompanied by steam launches with a first-aid man on board.
Petty officer of the boats fulfilled their duties during three days: first two days they learned to control the boat using rudders, the third day was given to learn sailing. Only students took part in sailing matches. Teamwork was very important in such kind of races and mistrust. The absence of well co-ordinated work led to defeat. Thus, sailing matches were not entertainment. But they were the part of the teaching process. They were the way to realize knowledge and skills of controlling the boat [22]. During the sailing match students gain the sense of water and wind. They learn how to define the correct course of the boat during sea motions, in order not to decrease the speed. They define the distance till the turn during the race. It develops a very important for a sailing master quality like faultless eye. In case of unnominal situations petty officer of the boat should be able to make right decision. It develops necessary for naval officer qualities: courage, determination, self-dependence.
Admiral E.V. Putyatin wrote the following: "apart from the habit of sea and life with the sea, a sailor should have a faultless eye, should be calm and quick-witted, as it is necessary for the boat control in terms of many unexpected situations at sea; but these qualities can be formed only at sea and gradually while a person is young" [18].
In 1890 there appeared extracurricular activity program of teaching physical exercises in cadet corpses [5]. According to the program
physical exercises should provide cadets' health improvement, their skills development to overcome obstacles, different movements mastering and develop their body powers and cultivate love of physical activity.
The program describes physical exercises. They are systematized according to the units:
- gymnastics and outdoor games. This unit included exercises without equipment, with non-stationary equipment and static equipment; teaching outdoor games. In summer senior students were taught barriers overcoming. Lessons were adapted to the age of students. Gymnastics lessons and teaching outdoor games was held during 2 hours every week in all classes. After evening lessons all classes had everyday gymnastics lessons (duration 15 minutes). In summer junior students had 2 hours of gymnastics and outdoor games, senior students had 3 hours of these units;
- fencing. Senior students were taught fencing. They studied fencing techniques and sparring. 10 minutes twice a week each student had fencing lesson;
- swimming. Swimming was taught mainly in summer. This unit included swimming on chest and back and diving. Time for teaching swimming was not limited, but it was written that junior courses were taught swimming during bathing. Senior students were taught swimming every day;
- dancing. This unit provided free, dexterous and beautiful movements development. Students studied educational and social dancing. Students had dancing 1 hour a week irrespective of studying course.
All students had drill ceremony (2 hours a week). At Command headquarters' discretion junior students could have 3 hours of gymnastics with outdoor games and one hour of drill ceremony. They depended on season and on success of cadets in mastering exercises. Physical exercises had to be distributed equally during the week and be held outdoors.
Cadets' summer practical lessons program [19] included the following units: rowing and boat control using paddles; boat control using sail. Different companies had their own programs: senior students had more difficult program. Apart from
mentioned above subjects senior students studied the following units: boat control with the stream, surf and while helping; pulling in to the shore, sea gate against surf, pulling in to another boat. It was in distress. Practical artillery lessons included gun and rifle shooting.
The quality of teaching cadets was seen in the following situation [20,21]: in order to win the bet cadets sailed from Baltic harbor (now Paldiski) to Saint-Petersburg. Two cadets took part in the voyage. They had only one compass. The voyage lasted 13 days 7 hours and 35 minutes. Describing their voyage they mentioned the difficulties they had to overcome. The main problem was lack of sleep. Bad weather and sail control wasn't a great problem for them.
At the same time, we found the following information [12]: after 1860-s rifles were excluded at Engineering college of emperor Nikolai I and it led to drill ceremony and shooting lessons were abolished. As gymnastic equipment was also absent gymnastics was abolished at this educational establishment. Only morning exercises preserved.
In fleet educational establishments sailing and rowing were compulsory courses for the future captains, regardless of whether they were in merchant or military navy. Apart from initial skills of the boat and crew control, rowing and sailing training developed physical and psychic qualities.
In order to get sailors and officers interested in mastering and developing rowing and sailing training the first competitions were held on the 21st of May in 1858 in Nikolaev under the direction of vice-admiral G.I.Butakov. The following disciplines were included into the competitions: rowing and sailing races, 1,5 meters "gymnastic step" running . Boats were divided into "categories" depending on their size [20].
Next competitions were held on the 8th and 9th of September, 1860 in Nikolaev. Two sailing regatta were held. One race was a sailing race without rudders, which was special, as it was purely Russian invention and wasn't held anywhere else before. Boating without a rudder was realized not only with canvas, but also by means of heeling and trim difference. In this race success depended on teamwork of the crew, the ability to fulfill orders
quickly and accurately. During the same days gun shooting competitions were held [20].
Sailing race and rowing race, running, shooting and swimming formed professionally-applied kind of sport, which was called naval combined events. This kind of sport was developed during Soviet period, then during post-Soviet period naval all-round competitions, as many other professionally-applied kinds of sport, fell into decay. Nowadays naval all-round competitions underwent new transformations. Modern naval all-round competitions included the following: skiff rowing, skiff sailing, running, shooting and swimming.
Conclusion
Naval education development led to physical upbringing development, as the profession of a sailor always demanded good health, special physical qualities in order to orient quickly in a difficult situation in terms of naval action or a difficult navigational situation. Officers taught sailors rowing and sailing. It was great professional and physical training, provided the skills development to work in a team. The life of sailors sometimes depended on the skills of swimming, sailing and rowing. Moreover, constant trainings developed volitional qualities. Physical exercises influenced both physical and psychic qualities of crewmembers. Psychological resistance of crewmembers is very important for being in a confined space of the ship for a long time.
As there appeared many subspecialists on the boards of ships and vessels, special complexes of professionally applied physical training are created for each specialty. However, special physical training is still very urgent, even in terms of modern life-saving equipment. Students at naval educational establishments should know how to swim, control the boat, should have the skills of rowing and sailing.
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Author's information:
Igor V. Zub* - Candidate of Pedagogics, Makarov State University of Marine and River Fleet, Saint Petersburg, 198035, Russia, Saint-Petersburg, Dvinskaya str., House 5/7, e-mail: [email protected]* Victor A. Kurys - Senior Lecturer, Makarov State University of Marine and River Fleet, Saint Petersburg, 198035, Russia, Saint-Petersburg, Dvinskaya str., House 5/7, e-mail: [email protected]
Andrei V. Akimenko - Post-graduate, Lesgaft National State University of Physical Culture, Sport and Health, Saint-Petersburg, 190121, Russia, Saint-Petersburg, Dekabristov str., House 35, e-mail: [email protected]
