CC BY
12
Перспективы Науки и Образования
Международный электронный научный журнал ISSN 2307-2334 (Онлайн)
Адрес выпуска: https://pnojoumal.wordpress.com/2023-2/23-02/ Дата поступления: 18.11.2022 Дата публикации: 30.04.2023
А. И. Шмакова
Семейное воспитание и отношения в родительской семье как факторы межпоколенческой передачи партнерских отношений: обзор исследований
Введение. Партнерское поведение может передаваться от поколения к поколению. Факторами межпоколенческой передачи партнерских отношений могут служить семейное воспитание, отношения в родительской семье. В настоящее время существует несоответствие между возрастающими потребностями психологической практики в понимании межпоколенческой передачи партнерских отношений и степенью изученности проблемы.
Цель статьи - дать аналитический обзор современных научных исследований о взаимосвязях отношений родителей и отношений их детей в подростковом и взрослом возрасте.
Материалы и методы. Методологической основой обзора является концепция межпоколенческой передачи А.А. Шутценбергер, Н. Абрахама, М. Терек и других, а также системный подход анализа семьи и трансгенерационный подход М. Боуэна. В работе применялся метод анализа литературы по проблематике факторов межпоколенческой передачи паттернов отношений с партнером. Использовалась поисковые системы по научным публикациям Google Scholar, eLibrary.ru, КиберЛенинка и др.
Результаты исследования. В результате обзора были выделены факторы, которые связаны с построением отношений у детей. Так, особое значение для построения отношений имеет скорее надежная привязанность, безопасная обстановка в семье, в отличие от фактора развода самого по себе. Родительские конфликты и стили их разрешения, тип привязанности связаны со стилем семейного воспитания. Депрессия матери влияет на психологическое благополучие ребенка и, как следствие, построение его отношений с партнером.
Заключение. В рамках проблемы межпоколенческой передачи паттернов построения романтических и брачных отношений имеют значение связи между отношениями молодых людей и родительскими конфликтами, количеством расставаний и разводов в родительской семье, качеством отношений матери со своим партнером, качеством отношений с ребенком в детстве. В статье, таким образом, определено, какие именно факторы семейного воспитания и отношений между родителями влияют на построение отношений у детей в следующем поколении. Подчеркивается недостаток российских исследований, несмотря на их важность для выявления межпоколенческих факторов, влияющих на благополучие брачных отношений.
Ключевые слова: межпоколенческая передача, брак, партнерские отношения, семья
Ссылка для цитирования:
Шмакова А. И. Семейное воспитание и отношения в родительской семье как факторы межпоколенческой передачи партнерских отношений: обзор исследований // Перспективы науки и образования. 2023. № 2 (62). С. 536-548. doi: 10.32744^е.2023.2.31
Perspectives of Science & Education
International Scientific Electronic Journal ISSN 2307-2334 (Online)
Available: https://pnojournal.wordpress.com/2023-2/23-02/ Accepted: 18 November 2022 Published: 30 April 2023
А. I. Shmakova
Parenting and Family Relationships Factors
in the Intergenerational Transmission of Partnerships:
a Research Review
Introduction. Partner behavior can be transmitted among generations. Factors influencing the intergenerational transmission of partnerships can include parenting and relations in the parental family. Currently, there is a discrepancy between the increasing need for psychological practice to understand intergenerational transmission of partnerships and the level of prior studies of the problem.
The purpose of the article is to provide an analytical review of modern scientific research on the link between parents' and their children's relationships in adolescence and adulthood.
Materials and methods. The methodological basis of the review is the concept of intergenerational transmission by A.A. Schutzenberger, N. Abraham, M. Terek and others, as well as Bowen's family systems and transgenerational approach. The method of literature analysis on the issues of factors of intergenerational transmission of patterns of partnering was used in the work. The search engines for scientific research Google Scholar, eLibrary.ru, CyberLeninka, etc. were used.
Results. The review identified factors that are related to children's partnering in adolescence and adulthood. A secure attachment and a safe family environment were particularly important for building relationships, in contrast to the factor of divorce itself. Parental conflicts and styles of their resolution, the type of attachment were associated with the parenting. The mother's depression affects the psychological well-being of the child and, as a consequence, the building of his or her relationship with the partner.
Conclusion. Within the problem of intergenerational transmission of patterns of romantic and marital relationships, the relationship between young people and parental conflicts, the number of breakups and divorces in the parental family, the quality of the mother's relationship with her partner, and the quality of the relationship with the child in childhood all matter. Thus, the article determines which factors of family upbringing and relationships between parents influence the building of children's partnerships in the next generation. It is emphasized that there is a lack of Russian studies on this topic, even though it is very important for the well-being of marital relations to identify intergenerational factors that affect them.
Keywords: intergenerational transmission, marriage, partnerships, family
For Reference:
Shmakova, A. I. (2023). Parenting and family relationships factors in the intergenerational transmission of partnerships: a research review. Perspektivy nauki i obrazovania - Perspectives of Science and Education, 62 (2), 536-548. doi: 10.32744/pse.2023.2.31
Introduction
n 2015, during the 29th Session of the Human Rights Council, the UN adopted a
resolution on "Protection of the Family: contribution of the family to the realization
of the right to an adequate standard of living for its members, particularly through its role in poverty eradication and achieving sustainable development" RES/22/29. The legal international field has established the notion that the natural environment for the development and upbringing of children is the family; states have been called to support the sustainable development of families, their welfare and spiritual well-being. Family is a social unit with its own history and upbringing traditions.
All people create one common history, their experience is shaped by historical events, both collective and individual. Each person is surrounded by significant people living in a particular time period, with whom he builds certain relationships. Thus, the individual is a link in the chain of generations, and there is some intergenerational link between them [1].
For many years, intergenerational continuity has been a key aspect of human life, through which society has developed, been enriched, and become more civilized. Family passes on some basic knowledge, which results in the upbringing of the individual. Intergenerational links make family the most important part that connects a person with the society. It provides insight into interpersonal relationships, including the individual within them. However, when experience cannot be shared, the individual faces various neuroses, psychosomatic diseases, mental health problems, and relationship problems [2; 3]. Thus, family history can have both beneficial and destructive effects on a human personality and his or her destiny.
The importance of intergenerational (transgenerational) transmission in family systems therapy was emphasized by Murray Bowen [2]. In the psychoanalytic tradition, the idea of intergenerational transmission was developed, for example, by A.A. Schulzeberger [3], N. Abraham, M. Terek [4] and others. Modern scientists are also interested in transgenerational theory within, e.g., family conflicts [1], transmission of trauma [5] or family functioning [6]. Although they are mainly focused on the influence of transgenerational transmission of family trauma and secrets on individual traits, the issue of the transmission of marital patterns is also very important. In the available literature, there was no review of studies of factors affecting the intergenerational transmission of patterns of romantic and marital relationships.
Therefore, the purpose of the article is an analytical review of modern studies on the link between parental relations, family upbringing, and the next generation's relations to identify factors of the intergenerational transmission of romantic and marital relationships described in the literature.
We analyzed literature on the issue of factors affecting the intergenerational transmission of marital relationship patterns from parents to children. Google Scholar, eLibrary.ru, CyberLeninka, and Google and Yandex search engines for scientific publications were used.
Key words for the literature selection were: transgenerational transmission, parental influence on children's relationships, choice of spouse, generational parental relationship, intergenerational transmission (межпоколенческая передача), transgenerational
Materials and methods
transmission (трангенерационная трансмиссия), life scenario (жизненный сценарий), influence of parental relationship patterns on children's partnering (влияние паттернов родительских отношений на отношения детей к партнерам), influence of parental relationship patterns on partner choice (влияние паттернов родительских отношений на выбор партнера), intergenerational parental spousal relationship transmission to children (межпоколенческая передача родительских супружеских отношений детям).
Our purpose is to analyze the current state of the issue. That is why we use articles that have been published in the last 10 years. Another criterion for the selection of articles was the description of an original study relevant to the topic, with a sufficiently representative number of participants, or the article should have provided an overview of such studies. The methodological basis of the review is the concept of intergenerational transmission in the psychoanalytic schools of A.A. Schutzenberger, N. Abraham, M. Terek and others, as well as Bowen's family systems and transgenerational approach.
Results
In the analysis of the literature, we identified several key topics that were explored in the intergenerational transmission of parental patterns to children: interparental conflicts, parental divorce, and maternal depression. We will consider each of the topics in more detail.
Interparental Conflict and Relational Attitudes within Romantic Relationships
Tolmacz et al. [7] explore the link between parental conflict and three tendencies associated with couple relationships in the generation of children and the possible influence of attachment style on this relationship. The study discusses three tendencies in partnering, with references to the work of Brenner et al. (2019) [8]; Gillath et al. (2010) [9]; Shavit & Tolmacz et al. (2014) [10]: 1) pathological concern; 2) sense of entitlement; 3) authenticity.
Expanding the concept of relationships involving pathological concern, the authors note that the motivation to help others varies and is influenced by different internal representations of self and others. In particular, "healthy" concern for others distinguishes from pathological concern in that "healthy" concern preserves the well-being of both giver and receiver, while pathological concern involves self-sacrifice and a tendency to ignore one's own needs.
Speaking of sense of entitlement, the authors note, with reference to the American Psychiatric Association, that this may be considered evidence of psychopathologies such as narcissistic personality disorder or psychopathy [11].
Mentioning authenticity, the authors mean genuine in one's relationships with others, and that authenticity reflects the degree to which people behave in accordance with their own feelings, attitudes, and beliefs.
The study considered two hypotheses:
1) interparental conflicts form anxious and avoidant attachment styles and affect their children's adolescent and adult relationship tendencies, namely a) pathological concern; b) sense of entitlement; c) authenticity;
2) attachment style is associated with parental conflict and these three tendencies.
The study was conducted among 280 young people aged 19-32 years.
"Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale" [12] was used to measure parental conflict perceptions. Attachment style was measured using the "Experience in Close Relationship Scale" [13].
The study found parental conflicts were positively correlated with anxious and avoidant attachment styles in children. Moreover, there was a positive correlation between parental conflict and pathological concern, over- or underestimation of sense of entitlement, and a negative correlation with authenticity.
Goldberg et al. studied how parents' relations are related to the quality of their children's relations in adolescence [14]. The authors chose adolescence because the formation of romantic relationships plays a significant role in this period and is linked to a number of processes and outcomes, including identity formation, physical and emotional health, school performance, and adolescent relationship quality.
The paper presents a review of previous studies that indicate that family processes are important predictors of the quality of adolescents' romantic experiences. For example, Roisman et al. [15] found that high-quality maternal parenting during childhood and adolescence was associated with a lower risk of forming a romantic relationship by age 15, and positively related to the quality of romantic attachment in a subgroup of adolescents in a romantic relationship at age 15. Cavanagh et al. [16] reported that adolescents raised in single-parent families were more likely to enter into conflictive relationships than their peers raised in two-parent families.
Goldberg et al. [14] used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), a population-based birth cohort study that included 4,898 children born in large U.S. cities at the turn of the millennium, linking adolescents' reports at age 15 with similar maternal reports measured when children were born and at ages 3, 5, and 9. The scientists studied all adolescents within the 15th wave of data collection whose mothers had at least two follow-up interviews from 3 to 9 years. Therefore, there were 2981 adolescents studied: 1540 boys and 1441 girls. The analysis was focused only on those who were in a relationship at the time of the year-15 interview, so the sample was 811 adolescents (422 boys and 389 girls).
The FFCWS study examined the quality of adolescents' relationships. For that purpose, scientists analyzed the general quality of current relations, whether there was an age difference of more than two years between the adolescent and the partner (age asymmetry), and whether the adolescent had been in any romantic relationships by age 15. Youth were also asked whether there was physical and emotional violence.
To measure the quality of a mother-child relationship, authors used maternal reports when the child was ages 3, 5, and 9. At each wave, mothers were also asked whether they endure physical and emotional violence with their partners, as well as cases of child abuse.
The study showed that there is intergenerational transmission of the mother's relationship quality to the offspring. Youth, whose mothers described their relationships as low-quality between ages 3 and 9, were more likely to have a partner by age 15. A link was also found showing that girls and boys who were physically abused by their mother were also more likely to be in relationships by age 15. It supports the idea that adolescents who have grown up in a conflict environment may start relationships at an early age as an escape mechanism.
It was found that adolescents, whose mothers were exposed to intimate partner violence, were more likely to form age-asymmetric partnerships as well as enter into abusive relationships. The study revealed that boys, whose mother's partnerships were described as low-quality, had a lower chance of having excellent or good relationships than girls.
Effect of Divorce in the Family of Origin on the Relationship of Offsets to their Partners
Little and Sockol in their study noticed that an important element of well-being during the transition to parenthood is new parents' relationships with their partners and babies [18].
Early experiences with the mother in childhood influence close relationships throughout life. Disruptions to the parent-child relationship, such as parental divorce or separation, may therefore have intergenerational effects as adult children of divorce navigate changes in their later relationships. This study examined whether new parents who have experienced a divorce or separation in their family of origin report greater dissatisfaction or impairment in the parent-infant bond during the early postpartum period and if this relationship depends on the type of attachment.
Young couples overcome many potential challenges when they become parents, including sleep disruption, the introduction of new responsibilities, and changes in the amount and quality of time that couples spend together. Young parents may also have difficulties in their relationships with their children.
Attachment theory provides a valuable lens through which to understand new parents' relationships with their partners and infants. According to this theory, patterns of behavior and expectations that develop through early interactions with caregivers are often imposed on new relationships later in life. Early experiences with adults make children form representations, or inner working models, of the self and others. Securely attached individuals are confident that others will be available and responsive to their needs, while insecurely attached individuals may be uncertain of others' availability or responsiveness or may not expect to receive support from others. Insecurely attached adults are also characterized along two dimensions: attachment anxiety, which is defined by uncertainty that feelings are mutual and worries that a partner will leave, and attachment avoidance, characterized by difficulty with trust and intimacy. There is evidence that infant-mother attachment influences the child's individual traits. A study of 42 mother-daughter dyads showed that daughters whose mothers were insecurely attached to their own mothers had a higher level of anxiety, conflict, and hostility and a lower level of favorable family situations. Although these individual traits can affect the future romantic and marital relationships of the offspring, the authors did not address this issue in this study. Nevertheless, it was examined how parent-child attachment (both with the mother and the father) can influence the choice of a partner for romantic relationships by an adult child. Avoidance of attachment with the father results in the choice of aggressive partners, while avoidance of attachment with the mother results in authoritarian ones [20].
The study by Little and Sockol [18] involved first-time parents of a child aged 6 months or younger at the time of the study. The respondents were between 18 and 45, resided in the United States, and were currently in a relationship.
Of the 142 eligible participants who initiated the study, 116 (82%) completed the survey and reported information regarding their parents' relationship status. As parental loss may also influence adult attachment, 22 participants who had experienced the loss of a parent were excluded from analyses, resulting in a final sample of 94 participants.
Attachment was evaluated with the Experience in Close Relationship Scale (ECR) [21], a 36-item questionnaire on common feelings in a romantic relationship. Satisfaction with relationships was assessed with the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) [22], a 32-item questionnaire on the quality of romantic relationships. Parent-child attachment was assessed with the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire (PBQ) [23], a 25-item questionnaire with four factors, including impaired bonding, rejection or anger, anxiety, and the risk of abuse.
The survey has shown that adolescents who experienced their parents' divorce did not differ from those from two-parent families in terms of satisfaction with romantic relationships and parent-child bonding. However, it was found that attachment avoidance and unsatisfied romantic relationships were both associated with deterioration in the parent-child relationship. This study does not support the findings of earlier studies that the relationship between parental separation or divorce and their children's relationships as adults may vary by gender. In the current study, the results were the same for both men and women. What is more, the hypothesis that the impact of parental separation or divorce on their children's relationships depends on the age of separation has not been confirmed.
Since the sample of the current study was limited to young parents who were currently in a relationship, the results may not be representative of single adults or those without children. The authors have also found that parents, who reported having high levels of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance, experienced more severe parent-infant bonding disorder. It should be noted that the sample of the current study includes both mothers and fathers.
Fergusson et al. [24] examined the associations between the number of childhood parental separations/divorces and partner relationships in adulthood under the age of 30, including the number of cohabitators and partners, positive or negative relationship experiences, relationship conflicts, and violence. The authors also studied the extent to which the relationships of children who have experienced parental separation/divorce vary depending on the gender and age of this separation.
The sample consisted of 1,265 children (630 women) interviewed as part of the Christchurch Health and Development Study.
The survey was conducted as follows: every year, parents were interviewed about their experience of separation or divorce from birth to age 15. Divorce was defined as a period of at least six months during which the parents lived apart with the intention to breakdown the marriage. To assess the partnership outcomes, there was studied the number of cohabiting/ marriage partnerships at the age of 16-30 years. Those participants who had been in a relationship for more than one month at the age of 29-30 years described the quality of these relationships, partner relations, and the presence of conflicts and violence in the couple.
Based on their analysis, the authors once again concluded, thereby confirming earlier studies, that there is a linear correlation between the number of childhood parental separations or divorces and the subsequent increase in cohabitation or marriage, negative partner relations, partner behavior problems, and interpartner violance and perpetration. At the same time, the association between the number of parental separations or divorces and children's later relationships was not significant. Further study showed that the number of childhood parental separations or divorces correlated with a wide range of unfavorable socio-demographic factors, family functioning, and childhood abuse. The authors conclude that any connection between childhood parental separation/divorce and the subsequent impact on relationships can be explained by the social, familial, and childhood context in which parental separation/divorce occurs.
Effects of Maternal Depression on Children's Relationships with Their Partners in Adulthood
In a longitudinal study conducted by Kujama et al. [25], involving 332 mothers and their children, an association was found between maternal depression levels when the child was 3 years old and the reactivity of this child at the age of 12. Katz et al. [26] examined
the quality of young people's romantic relationships and their association with maternal depression in terms of three factors: depression history, mother-child relationship discord, and maternal romantic relationship difficulties. The study explores the role of these factors in the risk for depressive symptoms during the transition to adulthood. Hypotheses were examined in a sample of 182 Australian youth who were followed from birth to age 20 and were in committed romantic relationships at age 20.
According to the study, the authors found a link between maternal depression and their children's relationship difficulties as adults, as youth, and their partners reports on chronic relationship stress. Maternal depression is also directly correlated with the discord in the mother-child relationship at age 15. However, neither maternal romantic relationship problems nor youth depression status were predictors of youth romantic relationship dysfunction in one's 20s. Given that mother-child relationship discord was found to be a significant mediator of poor youth relationship quality, a second model was evaluated to assess whether mother-child discord portends risk for depressive symptoms at age 20; the hypothesis was confirmed.
Therefore, when maternal depression was added to the final full model, which assessed the intergenerational transmission of relationship difficulties and depression, it was found that maternal depression predicted mother-child discord, leading to a deterioration of romantic relationship quality and, in turn, depressive symptoms at age 20. The current study, unlike many earlier studies, does not confirm the effect of maternal partnership difficulties on adult child relationships. It has also been suggested that youth depression by age 15 predicts the quality of young people's romantic relationships by age 20 and is a consequence of maternal depression, but this too has not been confirmed.
Other Factors Affecting the Intergenerational Transmission of Relationship Patterns
Kamp Dush et al. [13] discuss three theoretical factors that could underlie an intergenerational transmission of partnering: the transmission of economic hardships, the transmission of relationship-building skills, as well as the transmission of desire and readiness for relationships.
The authors note that both separation and divorce have a negative impact on financial well-being. Once a mother finds a partner, economic resources may increase, but poverty rates for economically disadvantaged divorced mothers exceed those of never-married mothers. Based on the economic hardship perspective, authors hypothesized that financial difficulties experienced by single, divorced, or remarried mothers would not significantly affect the offspring's partnering or be reduced following the addition of maternal employment, education, and poverty to the model.
The low socio-economic status of the parental family can affect the partnership of the younger generation in the following ways: first, individuals who grew up in families with lower incomes may have poorer socio-emotional, cognitive, and behavioral development in childhood and lower academic achievement in adulthood, which could render them less attractive partners; secondly, socio-economic status transmits across generations, and the economic stress that results from economic hardship is one of the most common and significant causes of relationship conflict and change of partners. Intergenerational transmission of socioeconomic issues is observed in at least a third of cases [27].
Another factor that can affect partnership may be the young adult's age at first union formation. [13]. Young adult offspring, whose mothers dissolve and form unions, leave
home and assume adult roles and responsibilities earlier than their peers. Early unions may also be unstable because they were formed during emerging adulthood, before identity development.
According to Kamp Dush et al. [13], the second mechanism is the intergenerational transmission of marriageable factors such as agreeable disposition, greater educational attainment, and relationship skills (i.e., communication and conflict resolution styles). Scholars argue that some individuals are more "marriageable" than others; that is, that some individuals possess characteristics that make them attractive potential romantic partners. Based on earlier research, the authors write that personality traits are also heritable; hence, maternal personality traits that undermine union stability may be shared by their offspring. Moreover, young people learn relationship skills by observing their parents' relationships and through their own relationships with their parents.
Considering the above, the authors hypothesize that there would be no difference between siblings in the connection between a mother's partnerships and her children. They note that children of parents who dissolved less distressed marriages were more likely to divorce, while children who grew up with parents whose relationships were highly distressed but stable were less likely to divorce. The authors use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Child and Young Adult (NLSY79 CYA). The data used for the current analysis were those of young adults who were at least 18 and for whom maternal partnership data was complete at that point. There were 7152 young adults, and 87% of offspring had at least one sibling in the sample.
The study measured the number of maternal partners throughout the period. Partnership status was measured at the time of the survey by self-reported marital and cohabitation status. For each young adult in the sample, there was a total maternal partner count that showed the number of partners to which each offspring had been exposed since the year of their birth. The study also had questions measuring the number of partners in the younger generation. The survey included questions about the mother's ethnicity, education, income, and relationship status at the time of birth.
According to the results of the study, children whose mothers had a lot of partners also had a lot of partners. Offspring who had more exposure to poverty reported significantly more partners, whereas offspring who had mothers with more education reported fewer. The authors expected that siblings who experienced different levels of maternal partnering would differ from one another, such that a sibling who experienced greater maternal partnering would be more likely to experience more partnering compared to siblings who experienced less maternal partnering. However, there was not found to be any difference, and thus, there is not any specific evidence in support of the transmission of commitment perspective. However, the study confirmed the intergenerational transmission of marriageable factors such as agreeable disposition, greater educational attainment, and relationship skills. The authors found that siblings reported similar partnership experiences even though they differed in their mothers' partnership experiences.
It was also found that siblings exposed to a longer experience of their parents' cohabitation rather than marriage entered into more partnerships than their siblings who had a shorter period of parental cohabitation in their lives.
_Discussion of the Results
The main factors that were studied in the intergenerational transmission of patterns of building romantic and marital relationships were identified: the influence of conflict in the family, the influence of divorce, the number of marital marriages and romantic partners, the influence of maternal depression, the influence of the socioeconomic status of the family, the level of education, and agreeable disposition.
It has been revealed that a conflicted family environment increases the risk of children having problems building romantic relationships in adulthood because of difficulties in disclosing their vulnerability and realistically assessing the satisfaction of their needs and concerns for themselves and others. This can be explained by the formation of insecure attachment in children whose parents are often in conflict with each other. This assumption is consistent with the evidence that parental conflicts predict children's negative attitudes toward themselves and others [28]; and with the theoretical model of Mikulincer et al. [29], based on a review of the literature on the fundamental role of attachment security in adult long-term, satisfying relationships. The connection between parental conflict behavior and the type of offspring's attachment, the feeling of loneliness, and relationship satisfaction was also found in a study by Feeney [30]. It is important to note that people with avoidant or ambivalent attachment styles should be helped to learn to communicate their relationship needs to significant others, particularly their partner.
The results of the association between an abusive environment at home and the start of relationships at an early age can be explained as an escape mechanism. Adolescents who have witnessed violence against their mothers are more likely to choose a partner much older than their age, which can be explained by the desire to have a partner as a protector. Then the motive of asymmetria in marriage is a desire for security [31].
The literature review found no significant evidence of a negative effect of parental divorce and the number of maternal partners on their children's satisfaction with their romantic relationships. At the same time, parent-child attachment had a great influence on the quality of children's relationships with their partners. Therefore, the results of the study do not support the trend in the study of the effects of parental divorce and young people's romantic relationships, which typically emphasizes potential negative consequences. In contrast, results show that many individuals who have experienced parental divorce or separation in their families of origin do not experience major problems in their relationships with their partners or children. One possible explanation for these results is that divorce or parental separation may influence whether a person wants to achieve certain relationship outcomes, such as the decision to marry or start a family, but may have less of an impact on the quality of subsequent relationships. This assumption is consistent with findings from a longitudinal study on expectations about their marital relationship among children of divorced and non-divorced parents with different levels of conflict in their families [32]. Children of divorced parents probably have no concept of lifelong marriage. Children, who experienced longer parental cohabitation, may begin to consider cohabitation as an attractive union with less commitment, which may allow a repeat partnership, given the high rate of cohabitation breakdown.
These results show that the experience of parental divorce or separation alone does not increase the risk of negative outcomes for young parents. Adults with secure attachments,
regardless of their parents' marital status, tend to have warmer relationships with their partners and infants in the early postpartum period.
A review of the literature also revealed that an agreeable disposition and a high level of education are considered intergenerational factors that favorably influence the romantic relationships of descendants. This view assumed that mothers possessed certain characteristics that made them more or less desirable in marriage and better or worse at relationships, which children inherited, learned, and then brought into their own relationships. Children who have experienced lower-quality relationships with their parents may lack positive relationship skills, making their own relationships less stable. Moreover, maternal depression is considered a factor in worsening offspring's romantic relationships due to the deterioration of parent-child relationships and the lack of experience with secure attachment. This is consistent with data on the influence of maternal schemas (which include, but are not limited to, expressions of depression and stress) on the early maladaptive schemas of daughters [33].
Therefore, this analytical review of the literature allows for the conclusion that parent-child relationship attachment style, with both mother and father, significantly influences the quality of romantic relationships in adult children. Attachment style is related to the style of upbringing, which in turn can be passed on from generation to generation. The influence of such factors as divorce, the number of parental partners during children's adulthood, and the long period of parental cohabitation on the satisfaction of offspring's romantic and marital relationships is overestimated. These factors, by themselves, without taking into account the attachment style, do not affect the quality of children's relationships, but act as children's conceptualizations of the possible development of relationships, which are transmitted among generations.
Conclusion
As a result of the analytical literature review of modern studies, we can draw a conclusion about the significant importance of the quality of parent-child relations and a safe, low-conflict atmosphere in the family of origin for the successful building of relations in future generations. The partnership of young people is associated with the relationships and parenting in their families of origin. At the same time, divorce alone does not perpetuate itself among generations, but combined with highly conflictual relationships in the family of origin, it does. Parental divorce contributes to the thought of divorce in the current marriage due to the lack of a lifelong relationship concept. It is noted that these thoughts do not necessarily lead to a breakup. Psychological characteristics of parents also affect their children's relationships. Thus, it has been revealed that children who experienced maternal depression are more likely to have breakdowns in their own relationships due to a lack of successful experience with interaction with adults. Another risk factor is the number of maternal partners while the child was growing up. The more partners a mother had, the less permanent her children's relationship was, and the greater the number of partners there were. Among the transgenerational factors contributing to successful relationships, the authors highlight personal traits and dispositions. Thus, factors have been identified and their importance identified for the intergenerational transmission of partnering patterns. It is worth emphasizing that most authors recognize that attachment style plays a vital
role in the quality of romantic relationships among descendants, which is related to the style of parenting and may have features of intergenerational transmission.
However, it should be noted that in the last 10 years there has not been much research on the influence of parental relationships on children's relationships, which may be a reason to continue studying this topic. Currently, there is a discrepancy between the increasing need for psychological practice to understand intergenerational transmission of partnerships and the level of prior Russian studies of the issue [19]. The most relevant issue, therefore, remains the determinants of this transmission. In addition to the subjective experience of the person, which provides individualization of family relations, a group of factors related to the system of family and family relations, which are reflected in the family history and in the parental relations, is distinguished.
_Honorary mention
I express gratitude to Svetlana Mikhailovna Belokrylova, my scientific adviser, for her valuable advice in planning the study and recommendations on the design of the article.
I am also very grateful to Elena Aleksandrovna Sorokoumova and my colleagues, who supported me while the article was being written.
REFERENCES
1. Mitrikas T. A. Phenomenon of Intergenerational Transmission. The Influence of Family History on Family Conflicts. Journal of Practical Psychology and Psychoanalysis, 2021, no. 1. Availlable at: https://psyjournal.ru/articles/ fenomen-mezhpokolencheskoy-peredachi-vliyanie-semeynoy-istorii-na-vozniknovenie-konfliktov
2. Bowen M. Family Therapy in Clinical Practice. New York: Jason Aronson. 1978.
3. Schutzenberger A. A. Ancestror Syndrome. Transgenerational Connections, Family Secrets, Anniversary Syndrome, Trauma Transmission and Practical Sse of the Genosociogram / Anne Ancelin Schutzenberger; [translator from French: I. K. Masalkov]. Series "Golden Foundation of Psychotherapy". Psychotherapy, 2011.
4. Abraham N., Torok M. Secrets and posterity: The theory of the transgenerational phantom. The shell and the kernel. London, 1994.
5. Golka K. A., Bolotina N. V. Transgenerational Transmission of Trauma in Relation to Levels of Trust and Depression in students. Childhood and Family in the Modern World, 2022, pp. 99-110.
6. Klever P. The Multigenerational Transmission of Family Unit Functioning 1. Handbook of Bowen Family Systems Theory and Research Methods. Routledge, 2019, pp. 265-277.
7. Tolmacz R., Bachner-Melman R., Lev-Ari L., Almagor K. Interparental conflict and relational attitudes within romantic relationships: The mediating role of attachment orientations. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 2022, vol. 39(6), pp. 1-2. doi: 10.117702654075211061617
8. Brenner I., Bachner-Melman R., Lev-Ari L., Levi-Ogolnic M., Tolmacz R., Ben-Amitay G. Attachment, sense of entitlement in romantic relationships, and sexual revictimization among adult CSA survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2019, vol. 36(19-20), pp. NP10720-NP10743. doi: 10.1177/0886260519875558
9. Gillath O., Sesko A.K., Shaver P.R., Chun D.S. Attachment, authenticity, and honesty: Dispositional and experimentally induced security can reduce self- and other deception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2010, vol. 98(5), pp. 841-855. doi: 10. 1037/a0019206
10. Shavit Y., Tolmacz R. Pathological concern: Scale construction, construct validity, and associations with attachment, self-cohesion, and relational entitlement. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 2014, vol. 31(3), pp. 343-356. doi: 10.1037/a0036560
11. American Psychiatric Association. In American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. 4th ed, 2000.
12. Grych J.H., Seid M., Fincham F.D. Assessing marital conflict from the child's perspective: The Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scal. Child Development, 1992, vol. 63(3), pp. 558-572. doi: 10.2307/1131346
13. Kamp Dush C.M., Arocho R., Mernitz S., Bartholomew K. The intergenerational transmission of partnering. PLoS
ONE, 2018, vol. 13(11), pp. e0205732. doi: 10.1371/journal. pone.0205732
14. Goldberg R.E., Eilers M., Tienda M., McLanahan S.S. Adolescent relationship quality: Is there an intergenerational link?. Journal of Marriage and Family, 2019, vol. 81(4), pp. 812-829. doi: 10.1111/jomf. 12578
15. Roisman G.I., Booth-LaForce C., Cauffman E., Spieker S. The developmental significance of adolescent romantic relationships: Parent and peer predictors of engagement and quality at age 15. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 2009, vol. 38, pp. 1294-1303.
16. Cavanagh S.E., Crissey S.R., Raley R.K. Family structure history and adolescent romance. Journal of Marriage and Family, 2008, vol. 70(3), pp. 698-714. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00515.x
17. Brennan K.A., Clark C.L., Shaver P.R. Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. Simpson J.A., Rholes W.S. (eds.) Attachment theory and close relationships. New York: Guilford Press, 1998, pp. 46-76.
18. Little K.K., Sockol L.E. Romantic relationship satisfaction and parent-infant bonding during the transition to parenthood: An attachment-based perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 2020, vol. 11. p. 2068.
19. Zinovieva D.M. Intergenerational transmission of "Secure Attachment" as a Resource of Psychological Well-Being. Izvestia of Saratov University. New series. Accmeology of Education Series. Psychology of Development, 2017, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 361-366.
20. Harvard O.O., Sabelnikova N.V. Attachment to the Romantic Partner of Young Men and Women with Different Features of the Relationship with their Parents. Bulletin of psychology and pedagogy of Altai State University, 2017. no. 1, pp. 27-35.
21. Spanier G. Measuring dyadic adjustment: new scales for assessing the quality of marriage and similar dyads. Journal of Marriage and Family, 1976, 38, pp. 15-28. doi: 10.2307/350547
22. Brockington I.F., Oates J., George S., Turner D., Vostanis P., Sullivan M. A screening questionnaire for mother-infant bonding disorders. Arch. Womens Ment. Health, 2001, no. 3, 133-140. doi: 10.1007/s0073
23. Amato P.R., DeBoer D.D. The transmission of marital instability across generations: Relationship skills or commitment to marriage? Journal of marriage and family, 2001, vol. 63. no. 4, pp. 1038-1051.70170010
24. Fergusson D., Mcleod G., Horwood L. Parental separation/divorce in childhood and partnership outcomes at age 30. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2014, vol. 55(4), pp. 352-360. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.12107
25. Kujawa A., Arfer K.B., Finsaas M.C., Kessel E.M., Mumper E., Klein D.N. Effects of maternal depression and mother-child relationship quality in early childhood on neural reactivity to rejection and peer stress in adolescence: A 9-year longitudinal study. Clinical Psychological Science, 2020, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 657-672.
26. Katz S.J., Hammen C.L., Brennan P.A. Maternal depression and the intergenerational transmission of relational impairment. Journal of Family Psychology, 2013, vol. 27, pp. 86-95. doi: 10.1037/a0031411
27. Carvalho L. Childhood circumstances and the intergenerational transmission of socioeconomic status. Demography, 2012, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 913-938.
28. Platt R.A., Nalbone D.P., Casanova G.M., Wetchler J.L. Parental conflict and infidelity as predictors of adult children's attachment style and infidelity. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 2008, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 149-161.
29. Mikulincer M., Florian V., Cowan P.A., Cowan C.P. Attachment security in couple relationships: A systemic model and its implications for family dynamics. Family process, 2002, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 405-434.
30. Feeney J.A. Parental attachment and conflict behavior: Implications for offspring's attachment, loneliness, and relationship satisfaction. Personal Relationships, 2006, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 19-36.
31. Karabanova O.A. Psychology of Family Relationships and Basics of Family Counseling. Moscow, Gardariki, 2006, pp. 320.
32. Roisman G.I., Booth-LaForce C., Cauffman E., Spieker S. The developmental significance of adolescent romantic relationships: Parent and peer predictors of engagement and quality at age 15. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 2009, vol. 38, pp. 1294-1303.
33. Gibson M., Francis A.J.P. Intergenerational transfer of early maladaptive schemas in mother-daughter dyads, and the role of parenting. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2019, vol. 43, pp. 737-747.
Информация об авторах Шмакова Альбина Ильдусовна
(Россия, г. Москва) Аспирант Московский Институт Психоанализа E-mail: shmacova@mail.ru
Information about the authors Albina I. Shmakova
(Russia, Moscow) Postgraduate student Moscow Institute of Psychoanalysis E-mail: shmacova@mail.ru
