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23Journal of the Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 1 (2008) 3-14
УДК 155.2
Parenting Internalization and Correlations Between Parenting, Sentiments, and Self-satisfaction Variables in Adolescence and Adulthood
Gershons Breslavs*
International Institute of Applied Psychology, Bruninieku str. 65, Riga, LV10111
Received 1.09.2007, received in revised form 1.12.2007, accepted 15.01.2008
The transition from adolescence to adulthood is currently attracting increased attention in developmental psychology. According to Vygotsky, Bronfenbrenner, Erikson and Bruner's developmental theories, increasing autonomy and self-concept development imply that relationships between young adults and parents change according to the internalization of this relationship and the development of new traits. Thus, different changes can be expected in the links between parental attitudes or style and such self-satisfaction variables as self-esteem and subjective well-being on the one hand, and such sentiments as love and jealousy, on the other. Sentiments are differentiated from situationally determined emotions and represent more prolonged relationships.
A two-group comparison design was used to examine these changes. Data were acquired from Russian-speaking Latvians in two age groups : ages 16-19 and 26-29. Six Likert-like scales were used to acquire data: a 30-item Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), a 37-item Child Rearing Practices Report (CRPR), a 10-item Rosenberg's Self-Esteem scale (RSES), Sternberg's revised 45-item Love Scale, a 25-item Self-Report Jealousy Scale (SRJS), and a 39-item Berne Questionnaire of Subjective Well-Being (BSW). The hypothesis predicts that the links between parenting variables and self-esteem and subjective well-being on the one hand, and with love and jealousy on the other, will change during the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Results partially confirm the predictions.
Keywords: Parenting, Self-Esteem, Subjective Well-Being, Love, Jealousy.
Introduction
Some theoreticians are convinced that only a theory that went through empirical intersubjective verification and quantitative analysis can be identified as scientific [39, 40]. This conviction seems to be fundamental for the modern understanding of science that emerged in the 17th century [57, 44]. Can such a general idea as internalisation proposed in different versions
by Janet, Mead, Freud, and Vygotsky be verified empirically?
There are sufficient data on simple subject-oriented external actions, sensory standards, and emotion transformed later into forms of internal regulation [55, 59, 28]. Is the internalisation of complicated social opinions and appraisals the same as that of simpler subject-oriented actions or emotion? Can we verify the transfer of external social interaction into internal self-regulation?
* E-mail address: g_bresl@latnet.lv
1 © Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved
During the last 30 years pure individual concepts in psychology have been supplemented by more interactional concepts, such as parenting, mattering, scaffolding, and especially attachment which became one of the central concepts of developmental psychology. The content of these interactions can be internalised sufficiently strongly so as to be able to assess their impact throughout human life.
In the 1930's Vygotsky proposed the concept of the social situation of development defined as the core of a relationship and a basic form of interaction between a child and environment [54]. According to the previous model, the core interaction of the social situation of development is infant-adult interaction that moderates secondary forms of interaction [7] that involve wider environment [11]. Distinct from psychoanalytic ideas [22], this moderation is viewed as a more or less constructive use of initial processes and mechanisms in the development of personality, not as the suppression of natural developmental processes. Is it possible to study the following process of internalization of these parent-child interactions? The first step to such a study should be the search for variables suitable for the operationalisation of these interactions.
Contemporary developmental psychology includes some variables that are claimed to be more or less effective in singling out some core features of these interactions [31, 32]. The best of them seem to be applicable to parental style [2, 4] and parental attitude [48]. Schaefer's model of parental attitude toward child rearing emphasizes two main dimensions or scales: Love versus Hostility and Autonomy versus Control [47]. Baumrind [2] elaborated a similar model of parental style as the dominant parents' rearing behavior features. They differ in that Schaefer's model defines the control pole as intrusiveness and restriction, while Baumrind's model defines control in a general manner with a more positive
connotation, including the implementation of social standards, and takes into account its impact on a child's behavior, as well as clarity of communication, and maturity demands. In earlier works Baumrind differentiated three parenting styles: Authoritative, as the combination of a high level of love (acceptance) and control; Authoritarian, as the combination of hostility (rejection) and control; and Permissive, as the combination of love (acceptance) and lack of control. Later Baumrind differentiated seven types of control to analyze the process of parental regulation in more detail [4].
These two models are applied intensively in many parenting measures that aim at singling out substantial aspects of parent-child relationship. At the same time that parenting is effective when a child becomes a productive and happy member of society is understandable, or ineffective when an adolescent and an adult display asocial or antisocial behavior and become delinquent [16]. Thus, the development of positive links between parenting and personality traits of a developed person can be expected only if parenting fits into an optimal parental style associated with a child's acceptance or love.
In fact, we can only predict the positive influence of parental love, not hostility, on traits and behavior development, because Baumrind's early research reveals that students' self-concepts vary directly with the perceived level of parental warmth, but do not vary as a function of their parents' level of restrictiveness [38, 37].
The second variable in Schaefer's model of parental attitude seems more ambivalent because the autonomy concept is not opposed to the control concept in contemporary developmental psychology. According to Baumrind's model only authoritative style is effective in ensuring social competence development [3] and internalization of parental standards and appraisals. Do the features of parental style or parental attitude to
a child transfer into the feature of self-attitude? If so, a stronger link between these variables can be expected at the more mature stages of development when self-concept becomes more stable and more definite. At the same time we know that parent-child relations are bidirectional and a child's behavior can be a moderator of these relationships [41].
The transition from adolescence to adulthood has attracted increasing attention in contemporary developmental psychology and is currently understood as the core process of social-psychological maturation. Data on increased autonomy and maturing identity during this transition as well as developmental concepts of Vygotsky, Bronfenbrenner, and Erikson presume that relationships between young adults and parents will change after adolescence. Contemporary developmental psychology has shown that these changes are not as dramatic as believed previously [12, 51, 54], that they are not necessarily brought on by a crisis, and that they can be measured [58]. The contradictory nature of popular developmental theories and ideas should be taken into account. For example, Erikson declared growing autonomy from social environment to be the central feature of maturation during adolescence. At the same time, he declared that "The child is the father to the man" [20, 21], which, interpreted according to the psychoanalytic tradition, refers to one's early childhood dependence. Despite psychoanalytic speculations, there are sufficient data showing true differences between adolescents and young adults [56, 33].
Thus, we may expect the changes in the links between parenting attitudes or parental styles and self-satisfaction variables, including self-esteem and subjective well-being on the one hand, and such long-term feelings as romantic love and jealousy, on the other. The differences between these two groups of variables are found in the role of cognitive elements in their representations as
well as in the period of their emergence. Although preschool children have more or less stable self-esteem, romantic love and jealousy emerge only in late adolescence [30].
Taking into account that love and jealousy are interpreted in psychology very differently [36, 27, 45, 26, 9] their understanding should be specified. It seems productive to differentiate short-term emotion representing an individual reaction to a past, present, or future situation and long-term feelings or sentiments representing a more integrated complex of attitudes, feelings, motives, and relationship [6, 8, 52, 29].
A close interaction between these two types of emotional phenomena exists, because sentiments emerge due to different emotions, more positive when liking or love are shaped and more negative when jealousy, contempt, or hate are formed. In turn, the development of sentiment leads to the emergence of motives, emotions, and attitudes connected with a subject-matter of this sentiment [6, 8]. Romantic love based on the generalization of long-term pleasant contacts later creates many positive emotions, motives, and attitudes to a beloved. At the same time there is no evidence that romantic love is based directly on previous attachment, despite that data show a definite similarity between mother-child attachment and romantic love [49]. At the same time the role of this attachment cannot be ignored [50] and the possibility that the basis for romantic jealousy is found in a child's jealousy towards siblings or towards other people.
If the parent-infant interaction is the core one that moderates other child's interactions, then the traits that start to shape when this interaction is dominant, such as self-esteem during the preschool age, may preserve a stronger link with parenting style during adulthood than sentiments such as romantic love and jealousy emerging later when parent-infant interaction loses its dominant role. When comparing the links between parenting
style and these two groups of variables during adolescence and early adulthood, we can expect to find different tendencies in the links' changes. At the same time romantic jealousy that emerged during adolescence is very difficult to differentiate from jealousy that emerged early in childhood [1, 34].
The hypothesis predicts that the links between parenting and other variables are stronger for young adults than for adolescents for early developed psychological features that represent self-attitudes (self-esteem and subjective well-being) and weaker for later developed sentiments, such as romantic love and jealousy (see Fig.1).
Method
Participants and Procedure A two-group comparison design was used to study links between the variables. One hundred Russian-speaking Latvian participants from two age groups were involved, 50 between ages 1619 and 50 between ages 26-29, the data from one
Level of correlation
participant were not accepted. In both groups 50% were female and 50% male. Adolescents attended three Riga's schools, adults were from Riga too. Participants completed voluntarily a battery of six measures at one session. The data were collected during May-June 2005 by the graduate student Olga Gavrilenko.
Instruments
Six Likert-type scales were used to assess six constructs: parental attitudes, parental styles, love, jealousy, subjective well-being and self-esteem.
Parental attitudes was measured by the 37-item Child Rearing Practices Report (CRPR) [5, 17] according to Schaefer's model [46, 47] that measured two independent variables - nurturance and restriction. Participants rated CRPR statements on their parents' attitudes to child rearing using the six-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (6).
Parental styles was measured by the 30-item Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) [13]
Adolescence Adulthood
Fig. 1. The predicted change of the links between parenting features and self-attitude variables (blue line) and between parenting features and sentiment variables (red line) in two age groups
that measured three styles: authoritative (AT), authoritarian (A), and permissive (P), according to Baumrind's model of parental styles [2, 4]. Participants rated statements on their mothers' style of child rearing using the five-point Likert scale ranging from "completely disagree" (1) to "completely agree" (5).
Love was measured by Sternberg's revised 45-item Love Scale [53] that measured three love dimensions : intimacy, passion, and commitment according to his Triangular theory of love [52]. Participants rated statements on their relationship with a particular partner using the nine-point Likert scale ranging from "not at all" (1) to "extremely" (9).
Jealousy was measured by the 25-item Self-Report Jealousy Scale [10] that includes 17 items assessing romantic jealousy. Participants rated statements on hypothetical jealousy-aroused situations using the five-point Likert scale ranging from "pleased" (0) to "extremely upset" (4).
Subjective well-being was measured by the 39-item Berne Questionnaire of Subjective Well-Being (BSW) [25, 23] that measured six primary factors: positive attitude toward life, somatic complaints, self-esteem, joy in life, problems, depressive mood. Two secondary contrary variables also were measured: satisfaction and ill-being. Participants rated statements on their life using the five-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (5), or from "never" (1) to "very often" (5).
Self-esteem was measured by the 10-items' Rosenberg's Self-Esteem scale (RSES) [42, 43] that measures a one-dimensional global self-esteem. Participants rated statements using a four-points scale ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (4).
All scales were adapted to Russian by the author and 16 collaborators (including three English philologists from the Faculty of Modern Languages of Latvian University) in 2002-2005.
Child Rearing Practices Report, Rosenberg's Self-Esteem scale, Parental Authority Questionnaire, and Berne Questionnaire of Subjective Well-Being were adapted according to the Oxford Outcomes' procedure comparing original versions with back translation and Russian reconciled versions by bilingual experts. The love and jealousy scales additionally were verified by the test-retest procedure on 22 (29 on the first stage) undergraduate students of English philology from Latvian university. They ranged in age from 20 to 23. The correlation between original and back translation questionnaires versions was 0.63 for the jealousy scale (p < .001) and 0.76 for the love scale (p < .001).
The primary quantitative analysis of the links between variables was carried out using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, followed by Fisher's Z-transformation for pairs of correlations.
Results
The main correlations between parental attitudes and parental styles and two groups of other variables are represented in tables 1 and 2. Gender and age differences exist in both the signs and the magnitude of the correlation.
The Nurturance scale of parenting attitudes (in the tables - CRPR-N) significantly correlates with love for male adolescents (intimacy, passion, and commitment). No correlations are significant for female adolescents. For adult males only intimacy significantly correlates with nurturance and there is no significant correlation for female adults. Nurturance correlates with jealousy for male contradictive - negative for adolescents and positive for adults, without significant correlations for females. Nurturance significantly correlates with both Well-being subscales for male adolescents and with the Satisfaction subscale of Well-being for male adults; the same tendency is present with female participants. The
link of Nurturance with self-esteem is significant for adults only (male and female). In general, the Nurturance scale links are more significant for males than for females, and we can see correlations decreasing in the adults' group for love but not for jealousy, well-being and self-esteem.
The restriction scale of parenting attitudes (in the tables - CRPR - R) correlates with the same variables differently and only few are significant. Data from females on the Well-being subscales look contradictory, where a positive correlation between restriction and satisfaction in the adolescent group changed to a negative correlation in the adult group. There is a big difference between ill-being positive correlation with restriction for female adults and negative for male adults.
Three parental styles have few significant correlations with other variables. Permission style (PAQ-P) correlates with ill-being for adult males and with the intimacy subscale of love only for adult females. Authoritarian style (PAQ-A) correlates negatively with the intimacy subscale of love for adult males, with self-esteem for adult females, positively with the satisfaction subscale of well-being for adolescent females, with the ill-being scale for adolescent males and for adult females. Authoritative style (PAQ-AT)
has more connections. It is positively connected with the intimacy subscale of love for male and female adolescents and for male adults, jealousy for male adults, the satisfaction subscale of well-being for adolescent females and for male adults, with self-esteem for adult males and females, and negatively connected with the ill-being subscale of well-being for adult males and females.
The main prediction of the study concerns not these correlations as such but changes in them. How significant are the changes of these correlations in the transition from adolescence to adulthood? If they are significant, are they coherent with the predicted direction of changes? To answer the question, Fisher's Z-criterion of correlations' transformation was used, which enables us to compare two pairs of correlations and to state definitely whether the difference is just a random one or not.
The main results on the Z-criterion for pairs of correlations between parental attitudes, parental styles, sentiments, and self-satisfaction variables are represented in Table 3. Few changes in correlations are significant in the transition from adolescence to adulthood.
Correlations between the nurturance scale of parental attitudes (CRPR-N), sentiments, and self-satisfaction variables show two significant
Table 1. Parenting attitudes (CRPR-N - nurturance, and CRPR - R - Restriction) correlations with Love (Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment subscales), Jealousy, Subjective Well-Being (Satisfaction and Ill-being subscales), and Self-Esteem (RSES) in two age groups (16-19) and (26-29)
r CRPR-N CRPR-R
M(16-19) F(16-19) M(26-29) F(26-29) M(16-19) F(16-19) M(26-29) F(26-29)
Intimacy 0.535** 0.301 0.358* -0.004 0.313 0.185 0.161 0.017
Passion 0.487** -0.001 0.001 -0.144 0.418* 0.237 0.047 0.105
Commitment 0.463* 0.132 0.002 -0.176 0.281 0.172 -0.101 -0.141
Jealousy -0.355* -0.125 0.432* -0.138 0.105 0.334 -0.200 0.115
Satisfaction 0.554** 0.417* 0.771** 0.362* 0.141 0.456* 0.133 -0.348*
Ill-being -0.635** -0.247 -0.528** -0.071 -0.108 -0.055 -0.671** 0.355*
RSES 0.014 -0.003 0.628** 0.402* -0.300 -0.019 0.257 -0.163
* - p < .05 ; ** - p < .01
Table 2. Three Parenting styles (PAQ - Permissive P, Authoritarian A, Authoritative AT) correlations with Love (Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment subscales), Jealousy, Subjective Weil-Being (Satisfaction and Ill-being subscales), and Self-Esteem (RSES) in two age groups (16-19) and (26-29)
r PAQ-P PAQ-A PAQ-AT
M (16-19) F (16-19) M (26-29) F (26-29) M (16-19) F (16-19) M (26-29) F (26-29) M(16-19) F (16-19) M (26-29) F (26-29)
Intimacy 0.028 0.230 0.164 0.353* 0,167 0,005 -0.341* -0,224 0.393* 0.398* 0.406* 0,059
Passion 0,093 -0,082 -0,222 0,21 0,34 0,221 -0,116 0,006 0,272 0,289 -0,077 -0,054
Commitment -0,009 0,086 0,05 0,214 0,222 0,1 -0,216 -0,185 0,288 0,244 0,048 -0,113
Jealousy -0,087 -0,169 0,201 -0,334 0,282 0,109 0,034 0,174 -0,216 0,01 0.454* 0,043
Satisfaction 0,051 -0,046 0,196 0,209 0,013 0.375* -0,053 -0,329 0,333 0.374* 0.744** 0,088
Ill-being 0,101 -0,028 0.405* 0,047 0.400* 0,069 -0,214 0.512** 0,032 -0,162 -0.374* -0.482**
RSES -0,3 0,008 -0,079 0,173 -0,322 0,119 -0,327 -0.478** 0,151 0,145 0.534** 0.604**
* - p < .05 ; ** - p < .01
Table 3. Fisher's Z-criterion of correlations transformation in the transition from Adolescence to Adulthood
r CRPR-N CRPR-R PAQ-P PAQ-A PAQ-AT
M (16-19)/ (26-29) F (16-19)/ (26-29) M (16-19)/ (26-29) F (16-19)/ (26-29) M (16-19)/ (26-29) F (16-19)/ (26-29) M (16-19)/ (26-29) F (16-19)/ (26-29) M (16-19)/ (26-29) F (16-19)/ (26-29)
Intimacy 0,74 1,05 0,53 0,56 -0,46 -0,44 1,74 0,77 -0,05 1,2
Passion 1,76 0,48 1,32 0,45 1,06 -0,98 1,56 0,72 1,18 1,16
Commitment 1,66 1,03 1,3 1,05 -0,2 -0,44 1,48 0,96 0,83 1,2
Jealousy -2.76** 0,04 1,02 0,77 -0,97 0,58 0,85 -0,22 -2.35* -0,11
Satisfaction -1,32 0,21 0,03 2.84** -0,49 -0,86 0,22 2.44* -2.03* 1,01
Ill-being -0,54 -0,6 2.34* -1,41 -1,09 -0,25 2.12* -1,65 1,41 1,2
RSES -2.40* -1,42 -1,9 0,48 -0,77 -0,55 0,02 2.12* -1,47 -1,84
* - p < .05 ; ** - p < .01
changes, with Jealousy, which contradicts the hypothesis, and with Self-Esteem, which confirms the hypothesis.
Correlations between the restriction scale of parental attitudes' (CRPR - R), sentiments, and self-satisfaction variables show two significant changes, for the link with the ill-being subscale of well-being for males and with the Satisfaction subscale for females.
Correlations between permission style (PAQ-P), ), sentiments, and self-satisfaction variables do not show any significant changes. Correlations between authoritarian style (PAQ-A), sentiments, and self-satisfaction variables show significant changes with the ill-being subscale of well-being for males, for the satisfaction subscale for females and for self-esteem. Authoritative style (PAQ-AT) links show significant changes in correlations with jealousy and satisfaction for males only.
The positive values of Fisher's Z-criterion indicate that there is the decrease in correlations in the transition from adolescence to adulthood, while the negative values of Fisher's Z-criterion indicate that there is the increase in correlations in the transition from adolescence to adulthood.
Discussion
The purpose of this study has been to investigate possible links between parental attitudes and styles with well-being, self-esteem, love, and jealousy in two age groups, adolescents and adults. In coherence with ideas of the internalization theory it was predicted that the traits starting to develop when parent-child interaction is the dominant one for child development, increase their links with parenting in adulthood, but not the traits starting to develop later during adolescence as romantic love, when this interaction loses its dominant character. It means that parenting links with self-esteem and well-being (its positive satisfaction but not negative ill-being subscale) will increase, but links with sentiments will
decrease in the transition from adolescence to adulthood (see Fig. 1).
The links between parental attitudes and styles with well-being, self-esteem, love, and jealousy are moderated by gender and age. Taking into account the more negative interpretation of restriction construct as a lack of autonomy [48], the results on the nurturance scale of the Child Rearing Practices Report are more relevant for the hypothesis verification. Positive correlation of this scale with the love subscales, the satisfaction subscale of well-being, and self-esteem, but negative correlation with the ill-being subscale of well-being was expected. The most of these correlations are sufficiently high, as predicted.
Taking into account the differences in Baumrind's typology of parental styles measured by the Parental Authority Questionnaire [13], the data on the most constructive authoritative style [4] are more relevant for the hypothesis verification. Parental rejection typical of authoritative style is negatively related to self-esteem among adolescents, however, authoritative style is related positively [14, 15]. Our data are more or less in accordance with these findings.
The positive values of the Z-criterion for love aspects' correlations with nurturance and negative - for self-esteem' correlations with nurturance generally confirm the hypothesis of the study (see Fig. 1). As well-being belongs to self-attitude variables and jealousy to sentiments variables, we can expect that the changes of correlations between nurturance and well-being will be closer to the changes of correlations between nurturance and self-esteem, but jealousy will be closer to love. The analysis of results for nurturance's correlation with self-esteem only revealed that the difference between links is significant according to the prediction.
However, at the same time the correlation between nurturance and jealousy also increased, a result that does not fit the hypothesis. The simplest
explanation would be that the questionnaire used in the study is not the measure of romantic jealousy only, but also of jealousy toward a chief or to parents [10], and the latter forms of jealousy are developed in childhood [34].
This explanation makes it possible to understand the last result on the significant Z-criterion for the increase of authoritative style's (PAQ-AT) link with jealousy for male adults. The increase of correlations between authoritative style' (PAQ-AT) and satisfaction for male adults is in accordance with the hypothesis.
The use of parental styles concept looks attractive because mothers' attitudes toward child rearing are sufficiently stable, as longitudinal studies show [35]. However, at the same time, in mid-adolescence, a general increase in maternal control behavior occurs. This increase, in turn, provokes more parent-adolescent conflicts and corresponding consequences occur in the role of the relationship [16].
The lack of strong Z-criterion for the decrease of Parenting link with Love can be explained by the small sample involved in the research and forms of child-mother attachment and child behavior that can moderate the process of adolescents' emancipation process.
The results show inconsistent gender effects of links between Parenting and Satisfaction subscale of Subjective Well-being, which requires additional research.
Conclusion
The hypothesis has been confirmed partly: parenting links with Self-Esteem and Love change from Adolescence to Adulthood in different directions, becoming stronger with the former and weaker with the latter. But the amount of these changes is statisticaly significant for the Nurturance scale of parental attitudes' connexion with Self-Esteem only.
Subjective well-being's link with parenting only partly shows the same effect as Self-Esteem.
Jealousy's link with parenting shows more similarity with Self-Esteem, not with Love, as had been hypothesized.
It seems possible to study the role of parenting in the context of internalization theory, but more complicated design and more sensitive statistical procedures should be applied. Gender differences seem very important in the topic and require special investigation.
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