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Section 3. General philology and linguistics
https ://doi.org/10.29013/EJLL-23-2-15-21
Ereza Rushiti, MA, Department of English Language, Faculty of Foreign Languages AAB College, Pristina, Kosovo
NOUN CLAUSES AND THEIR SYNTACTICAL ROLE IN COMPLEX SENTENCES IN ENGLISH AND ALBANIAN
Abstract. The arrangement of words and phrases is essential in the creation of well-formed sentences in a language. The subject, predicator, and object, are the three main limbs of a sentence, and with the absence of one of them, the sentence is not possible nor completed. Knowing that noun clauses play the role of the noun in a sentence when dealing with these types of clauses in two different languages, it will be noted that the position and the order of the words inside the clause and the structure of the complex sentence as a whole will naturally not be the same in all cases.
The main purpose of this research was to give a contrastive analysis of the noun clauses in complex sentences in the English and Albanian languages, looking at how the arrangement of the words stands, the position of the subject, predicator, and the object, and the use of the subordinating conjunctions inside the clause and in the sentence as a whole, in both languages.
The novel "The Old Man and the Sea" by Ernest Hemingway and the version in Albanian "Plaku dhe Deti" by Ylber Pinjolli were used for the analytical part of the research. The clauses were found simultaneously in both novels, and the equivalents were shown and presented through tables, from which we can conclude that in most cases consistency was found between the noun clauses in English and those in Albanian, with some changes mostly valid in the use of the subordinating conjunction and the verb.
Keywords: noun clause, subordinating conjunction, complex sentence, English, Albanian.
Introduction main types: noun or nominal clauses (fjali emerore),
For it to be called a clause, there needs to be a adjective clauses (fjali mbiemerore) and adverbial
subject (kryefjala), predicator (kallezuesi), and ob- clauses (fjali rrethanore).
ject (kundrinori). Payne [6] defined the indepen- Nominal clauses have the function of a noun
dent clause as one that is fully inflected and capable in a sentence; they can be subject clauses, object
of being used in discourse on its own. As Agolli clauses, and subject complement clauses [1, p. 12].
[1] states, according to the function they have in a As stated above, clauses without predicators can-
sentence, subordinating clauses can be of three (3) not function, from what we understand that the
verb in them is very important. Therefore, we have the second division according to their grammatical form, where they can be finite and non-finite clauses.
The main purpose of this research was to give a contrastive analysis of the noun clauses in the English and Albanian languages, present the equivalents and show to what extent they correspond to one another. The objectives included defining the subordinate and nominal clauses, analyzing them in both languages by the aim of the research, as well as present the equivalents through tables.
Nominal clauses: Definition, types, and functions in English
A nominal clause (noun clause) is a dependent clause that performs and nominal function, i.e. it has a range of functions similar to that of a noun/noun phrase. The main functions of nominal clauses include the subject of the complex sentence (subject clause), subject complement (predicate nominative clause), and the direct object (object clause). Finite nominal clauses in English are introduced by that or a wh-word (what, whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever, whomever, whether/if, how, where, why, when) [1, p. 12].
The subject clause is a dependent clause that performs the function of the subject of the main clause verb, and it can be identified by asking 'Who or What carried out the action denoted by the verb?' Example: What you said shocked me [1, p. 15].
A subject complement or predicate nominative clause (percaktor kallezuesor) usually follows a copular or linking verb and describes the subject of the main clause. Example: My concern is that she is incapable of change [1, p. 31].
In English and Albanian, nominal clauses can also function as object complements (percaktor kallezuesor i kundrines). While subject complement clauses describe the subject, object complement clauses describe the status, characteristics, or qualities of the main clause direct object. Example: We made them what they are [1, p. 31].
Object clauses perform the function of the direct object in a complex sentence, and can be identified by asking 'Who or what is affected by the action denoted by the verb?' Example: I realized that my best friend was lying [1, p. 38].
Clauses functioning as indirect objects and prepositional objects: indirect object clauses show the receiver of the activity denoted by the verb. English indirect object clauses are introduced only by nonspecific wh-words (whoever, whichever, whatever). Example: I will give whomever I want my book [1, p. 43]. Nominal clauses and non-finite -ing clauses can also occur as prepositional objects, fulfilling the function of a participant in a situation (laugh at, believe in, count on, smile at). Example: I saw to whom she gave the secret files [1, p. 43-44].
Nominal clauses: Definitions, types, and functions in Albanian (Fjalite emerore)
According to function, syntactic relations to the main clause, and parallelism with the limbs of the sentence, the subordinate clauses in Albanian are divided into subject clauses (fjalite kryefjalore), subject complement clauses/predicate nominative clauses (fjalite kallezuesore), object clauses (fjalite kundrinore), clauses with indirect objects and prepositional objects (fjalite me kundrinor te zhdrejte dhe me kundrinor me parafjale), object complement clauses (fjalite percaktore kallezuesore te kundrines) [2, p. 496].
Subject clauses in Albanian can be declarative (deftore), interrogative (pyetese), exclamative (thirrmore), and nominal relative (peremerore). The main clause usually expresses the speaker's approach to the issue described in the subject clause. Albanian also allows the extraposition of declarative subject clauses introduced by qe, especially if the main verb is jam. In these cases, the verb always starts the complex sentence, and the conjunction qe can be present or omitted. Example: Ishte e qa-rte qe atyre s'u kishte rene ne sy kjo gje.; Eshte marrezi te mbyllesh ne shtepi ne nje kohe te tille [1, p. 15-16].
Subject complement or predicate nominative clauses can follow copula verbs such as: jam, dukem, bej, quhem, mbes, shtirem, etc [1, p. 27]. Albanian counterparts of predicate nominative clauses introduced by the conjunction that are fialite kallezu-esore introduced by the conjunction se, qe. Example: Nje nga arsyet mund te jete qe disa prej tyre kishin harruar mjetet perkatese.; Problemi eshte se mungonte pjesa me e rendesishme e detyres [1, p. 28]. To-infinitive subject complement clauses can be translated into Albanian using finite clauses (fialite kallezuesore) with a verb in menyra lidhore. Example: Kryesorja tani per tani eshte te bisedojme me nenen [1, p. 30].
Object clauses (finite) represented by three main structural subtypes including declarative, interrogative, and exclamative object clauses also exist in the Albanian language, respectively termed as fiali kundrinore deftore, fiali kundrinore pyetese, and fiali kundrinore thirrmore. Albanian declarative object clauses (fialite kundrinore deftore) are introduced by the conjunctions se, qe, following verbs like mendoj, besoj, kujtoj, pandeh, degjoj, shoh, ndiej, kuptoj, di, etc. For example: Ne besojme se personi ne fjale eshte i pafajshem.; Ata e kuptuan qe veprimi nuk ishte bere me qellim. [1, p. 38-39) Object clauses (to-infinitive) in English are functionally similar to Albanian fialite kundrinore deftore containing a verb in menyra lidhore. For example: Ajo deshironte qe femijet te shkolloheshin jashte vendit. Because the -ing constructions are very nominal in function, they seem to have a similar use to foljet e emerzuara in Albanian (tepunuarit, te ecurit, etc.): Me pelqen te ecurit ne park [1, p. 42].
Indirect object clauses and prepositional object clauses: subordinate clauses in English and Albanian can appear as indirect objects (kundinor i zhdrejte) and prepositional objects (kundrinor me parafiale). Albanian indirect object clauses (fialite kundrinore te zhdrejta) are even more closely related to the verb/verb phrase and the direct object. For example: Sigurisht ju vjen keq qe po ndaheni.
Object clauses in Albanian can be preceded by the prepositions per, nga, me, ne: S'dinte me se t'i gos-tiste miqte [1, p. 43].
Object complement clauses in Albanian (per-caktor kallezuesor i kundrines) also follow the direct object of the main clause, but they complete verbs like shoh, degjoj, ndiej, etc. In addition to the object complement clauses introduced by qe or tek, Albanian uses a special type of object complement clause without a conjunction and with a verb in menyra lidhore. For example: E pa ate te kryente me sulm brenda disa oreve punen e disa diteve.; Ndjeu zemren t'i rrihte si ^ekan [1, p. 31].
Design and Methodology
For this study, a qualitative method of research was used. The research is two-fold: the equivalents of the noun clauses in English and Albanian are shown and presented through tables - the sentences were taken from the novel in English "The Old Man and the Sea" and the version in Albanian "Plaku dhe Deti" and randomly picked for the analysis. The strategies for translating the noun clauses from the source language into the target language are shown as well and presented in tabular form.
For the theoretical part of the research, respectively the literature review, the descriptive method was applied where different grammar and syntax books were used, both for the English and Albanian languages. The contrastive analysis of the clauses was conducted for the analytical part of the research. Clauses were analyzed in the syntactical aspect to show the equivalents according to the functions they perform in complex sentences, according to the grammatical form, and the use of subordinating conjunctions and verbs.
The content analysis has to do precisely with the examples taken from the novel. This analysis was done to comply with the objectives, the purpose of the study, and the research questions, in which case the examples, noun clauses in complex sentences themselves, were analyzed by the main purpose of this paper.
Results 2. Clauses functioning as direct objects;
From the findings, we have the equivalents of the 3. Clauses functioning as prepositional objects;
noun clauses in English and Albanian as follows: 4. Subject complement clauses and;
1. The subject clauses; 5. Object complement clauses.
Table 1. - Illustration of Subject Clauses in English and Subject Clauses in Albanian
No. The Old Man and the Sea -Ernest Hemingway Plaku dhe Deti -Ylber Pinjolli
Finite 1. Everything that shows on the surface today travels very fast and to the northeast. (p. 28) Çdo gjë që shfaqet sot në sipërfaqen e detit lëviz shumë shpejt dhe të gjithë shpejtojnë drejt verilindjes. (p. 23)
Finite 2. But it is good that we do not have to try to kill the sun or the moon or the stars. (p. 57) Por është gjë e mirë që ne nuk kemi mundësi të vrasim diellin, apo hënën, apo yjet. (p. 46)
Non-finite 3. It is humiliating before others to have diarrhea from ptomaine poisoning or to vomit from it. (p. 46) Është gjë poshtëronjëse kur në sy të njerëzve të zë barku ose të vjellat nga një peshk i prishur. (p. 37)
In the first example, we have a typical example of a subject clause as it is positioned at the beginning of the sentence. It contains that clause and is followed by the main clause beginning with the verb travels. Similarly, the subject clause in Albanian is positioned at the beginning of the sentence and is followed by the main clause that begins with the lexical verb lëviz.
2. There we have an example of extraposition: in English, the main clause that contains the subject and the copula verb is, precedes the subject clause introduced by the conjunction that. The extraposition in Albanian: the main clause containing the
copula verb eshte and the subject gje, followed by an adjective e mire, precedes the subject clause introduced by the conjunction qe.
3. Another example of extraposition in the third sentence: the main clause that contains the subject It, the copula verb is and the adjective humiliating, is followed by the subject clause which is introduced by the infinitive with to, to have. The extraposition in Albanian: the main clause beginning with the copula verb Eshte, followed by the subject gje and the adjective e mire, precedes the subject clause that is introduced by the wh-word kur (adverb of time in Albanian), indicating what the subject is about.
No. "The Old Man and the Sea" by Ernest Hemingway "Plaku dhe Deti" by Ylber Pinjolli
Finite 1. The boy did not know whether yesterday's paper was fiction too. (p. 9) Djali nuk e dinte kishe apo jo plaku gazetë apo edhe kjo ishte gjithashtu një fantazi e tij. (p. 8)
Finite 2. He cannot know that it is only one man against him, not that it is an old man. (p. 35) Ai nuk e di se po lufton vetëm me një njeri ose më mirë me një plak. (p. 29)
Non-finite 3. But he could see the prisms in the deep dark water and the line stretching ahead and the strange undulation of the calm. (p. 45) Por ai vështronte si thyheshin rrezet në ujë dhe si binin drejt në thellësi fijet dhe lëkundjet e çu-ditëshme të detit. (p. 36)
Non-finite 4. Otherwise, everyone would have wanted it to_ go to a finish. (p. 53) Po të mos kishin punë do të donin që gara të vazh-donte gjer sa të fitonte njeri. (p. 43)
Table 2. - Illustration of Object Clauses functioning as Direct Objects in English and Albanian
The main clause in English precedes the object clause which is introduced by the wh-word whether and followed by the object of the sentence, yesterday's paper. In Albanian, the main clause with the verb in the negative form nuk e dinte precedes the object clause which begins with the verb in the interrogative form kishte apo jo.
2. The verb phrase cannot know in the main clause is preceded by the object clause introduced by the conjunction that. In Albanian, we find the verb in the negative nuk e di followed by the object clause introduced by the subordinating conjunction se.
3. The main clause in English with the verb phrase could see precedes the object clause that begins with the object of the sentence itself. We notice that the clause has two objects within 1. the prisms in the deep dark water, and 2. the line.
The clause has the direct object -ing clause present in it (stretching ahead). In Albanian, the main clause with the verb vështronte is followed by the object clause rather introduced by the conjunction si. This conjunction was used twice in the clause in Albanian, therefore we have two clauses within the clause: 1. si thyheshin rrezet në ujë, and 2. si binin drejt në thellësi fijet dhe lëkundjet e çu-ditëshme të detit.
4. The verb phrase would have wanted in the main clause is followed by the object clause that has the direct object to-infinitive clause beginning with the object it. In Albanian, the main clause with the verb phrase do të donin in mënyra kushtore, precedes the object clause introduced by the conjunction që, followed by the subject of the clause gara and verb të vazhdonte in mënyra lidhore.
Table 3. - Illustration of Prepositional Object Clause in English and Albanian
No. "The Old Man and the Sea" -Ernest Hemingway "Plaku dhe Deti" -Ylber Pinjolli
Non-finite 1. He worked back to where he could feel with his foot the coils of line that he could not see. (p. 63) U kthye pas gjersa gjeti me këmbë lëmshet e fillit që nuk mund t'i shihte me sy. (p. 51)
The main clause is followed by the prepositional object clause that begins with the preposition to and the wh- word where and proceeded by he could feel, whilst, in Albanian, the main clause has got the
verb in forma joveprore, U kthye pas, followed by the prepositional object clause which has the concatenated preposition gjersa and the verb of the clause gjeti.
Table 4. - Illustration of Subject Complement Clauses in English and Subject Complement Clauses in Albanian
No. The Old Man and the Sea -Ernest Hemingway Plaku dhe Deti -Ylber Pinjolli
Finite 1. All I know is that young boys sleep late and hard. (p. 15) Unë di vetëm që djemtë e rinj flejnë shumë dhe bëjnë gjumë të rëndë. (p. 13)
Non-finite 2. My choice was to go there to find him beyond all people. (p. 36) Fati im ishte që të shkoja dhe ta gjeja vetëm, atje ku nuk kish depërtuar asnjeri tjetër. (p. 30)
The main clause in English contains the copula verb is and precedes the finite subject complement clause introduced by the conjunction that. In Albanian, the main clause has no copula verb but the particle vetem instead, followed by the subject
complement clause introduced by the conjunction qe.
2. The main clause in English has the copula verb was and precedes the non-finite subject complement clause that begins with the to-infinitive
verb to go. Another to-infinitive verb is present in the same clause, therefore we have two to-infinitive verbs: 1. to go, and 2. to find. The main clause in Albanian also has the copula verb ishte but is preceded by the non-finite subject complement clause
introduced by the conjunction qe, and followed by the to-infinitive verb in menyra lidhore, te shkoja. There are two to-infinitive verbs within the same
clause in Albanian as well: 1. te shkoja and 2. ta gjeja.
Table 5. - Illustration of Object Complement Clauses in English and Object Complement Clauses in Albanian
No. The Old Man and the Sea -Ernest Hemingway Plaku dhe Deti -Ylber Pinjolli
Finite 1. He went back to rowing and to watching the long-winged black bird who was working, now, low over the water. (p. 23) Ai u vu përsëri të vozite dhe të vërente zogun e zi me krahë të gjata qëpo gjuante tani fareposhtë, pranë faqes së ujit. (p. 19)
Non-finite 2. I can remember the tail slapping and banging and the thwart breaking and the noise of the clubbing. (p. 6) Më kujtohet bishti qëpërplasej dhe godiste dhe që theu fronin dhe zhurma e shkopit tënd kur ti i bie peshkut. (p. 5)
1. The object of the sentence the long-winged blackbird (an adjective phrase) in the main clause in English precedes the finite object complement clause introduced by the wh-word who. In Albanian, the object of the sentence, zogun e zi me krahe te gjata (a noun phrase) in the main clause is followed by the finite object complement clause introduced by the conjunction qe.
2. The object the tail in the main clause in English precedes the non-finite object complement clause introduced by the -ing clause, beginning with the gerund slapping. Three gerunds are present in this clause: 1. slapping, 2. banging, and 3. Breaking. We notice the presence of another object complement clause within the same clause: (the thwart breaking...). In Albanian, the main clause with the object bishti is followed by the non-finite object complement clause introduced by the conjunction qe, and instead of gerunds, the two verbs are in koha e pakryer: 1. perplasej and 2. godiste, the first in forma joveprore and the second in forma veprore.
Conclusions
With the analysis having been carried out and to summarise the points made in this paper, it can be concluded as follows:
- Noun clauses, both in English and Albanian can be identified by asking "who or what carried out the action denoted by the verb" and "who or what is affected by that action"; based on what they show and describe; based on what they are introduced by (conjunctions, wh-words, wh-clauses, to-infinitive clauses, -ing clauses)
- In most cases, consistency was found between the noun clauses in English and those in Albanian, with some minor changes mainly valid in the cases of using the subordinating conjunction and the verb. From the examples that were illustrated in this paper, it can be understood that these changed occurred in order not to lose the meaning in the translation of these clauses and the sentences as a whole in Albanian, as well as to keep the naturalness in the Albanian language.
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