77Music counselling
Wolfgang Mastnak (Munich, Beijing) Beijing Normal University Wolfgang.Mastnak@hmtm.de
Abstract. From an ethnological and historical point of view music is inextricably linked with ritual practices and ontological myths, while various civilisations have brought about concert life and a certain socio-cultural 'musical segregation'. Moreover, music has become a tool for political purposes, educational and therapeutic circles have discovered the beneficial potential of music, and the discipline of community music has 're-discovered' the common phenomenon of musicking. With regard to Fyodor Vasilyuk's psychological findings and innovations, particularly best practice of music education and music therapy involves principles of 'co-experiencing' as well as the spirit of cultural-historical psychology and person-centred psychotherapy. In this context, the Research Centre for Arts Therapies of Beijing Normal University suggests a novel model of 'music counselling', which is located between music therapy, inclusive music education and supportive community music. Although music counselling mainly profits from the broad spectrum of beneficial music-associated factors such as self-expression, archetypal and individual symbolisation, non-verbal communication and psychosomatic self-regulation, it also involves verbal and other artistic approaches, e.g. dance and drama. Briefly speaking, music counselling is not only a novel model but also a principle which can be found in various practices such as Creative Pansori, music-based psychotherapy, depth psychological and supportive music education, music-rhythmic therapy, and a novel concert format for children called 'pianoro'. Music counselling focuses on music-sensitive sub-clinical issues (e.g. sleep problems which are akin to sleep disorders but smaller in size) and provides add-on clinical support (e.g. for children with cancer) as well as help in difficult life situations (e.g. feeling emotionally abandoned). Taking alarming psychopathological pandemics, which particularly affect the younger generation, into account, educational institutions are called to enhance translational collaboration with clinical and health sciences and to re-design curricula and targets. In this context, the anthropological essence and health-promoting potential of music gains in importance and culturally sensitive music counselling seems to be in the ascendant.
Keywords: cross-cultural counselling, music therapy, ethno medicine, public health, music-based psychotherapy
Introduction
What is music? The answer to this question greatly depends on the perspective from which it is given (cf. Mastnak, 1990, p.28-36): philosophers, anthropologists and musicologists such as Thrasybulos G. Georgiades, Ernst Bloch and Carl Dahlhaus suggested definitions, and while Igor Stravinsky maintained that music is the product of a human's creative and focused act, Olivier Messiaen called the birds his grand teachers. In his 'De musica' Saint Augustine defines music as 'ars bene modulandi' and points out that music is rather an artistic process than a product - a view which is akin to today's neologism 'musicking'. By contrast, a myriad of myths say that music goes hand in hand with the origin of the world and incorporates universal harmonies, which are regarded as principles of sociocultural and psychosomatic balance.
Such interdisciplinary, ontological and aesthetic considerations are not only a major scientific topic of the School of Arts and Communication of Beijing Normal University (BNU) - from a more pragmatic perspective and inextricably linked with the aim and scope of the BNU Research Centre of Arts Therapies, music and the arts are also associated with four different fields, which are relevant to both cultural anthropology and public health.
Firstly, music and the arts are considered an essential complement and/or counterpart of the human being. They significantly contribute to the multifaceted human living space and shape an individual's life and personality. A second area concerns music and the arts as a medium which helps to cope with difficult life conditions, and a wealth of ethnological and historical examples witness this enormous potential: music and arts in funeral and burial rituals help to cope with bereavement,
and they support pregnant woman who experience existential anxieties and despair. Music and the arts helped to survive concentration camps and are supportive media in palliative medicine. Precisely such areas concern the BNU arts therapeutic research centre's definition of music and arts counselling: specific and individualised support when life becomes hard, and this differs from distinct therapeutic targets, which are closely linked to criteria such as symptom reduction or complete and sustainable cure.
The third field relates to the BNU-definition of music and arts therapies, which advocates diagnosis-specific interventions, relates to arts-based possibilities to modify pathogenic conditions and takes relevant mental, somatic, social, cultural and spiritual systems into account. The fourth domain concerns arts and arts-based activities to promote health, e.g. to improve the immune system or to strengthen cardio-respiratory fitness (Mastnak, 2020). This goes hand in hand with advanced health education and preventative aspects of public health. Given that various schools and approaches of music and arts therapies tend to confuse these duties and features, BNU provides a theoretical framework which differentiates essence and effects of music and the arts, as well as health promotion, pathological issues and curative techniques, and in this area music counselling is a novel domain.
Classical counselling & music counselling
Counselling psychology is of American origin and that is a reason why referring to the American Psychological Association (2020) can be regarded as a reliable source:
Counseling psychology is a general practice and health service provider specialty in professional psychology. It focuses on how people function both personally and in their relationships at all ages. Counseling psychology addresses the emotional, social, work, school and physical health concerns people may have at different stages in their lives, focusing on typical life stresses and more severe issues with which people may struggle as individuals and as a part of families, groups and organizations. Counseling psychologists help people with physical, emotional and mental health
issues improve their sense of well - being, alleviate feelings of distress and resolve crises. They also
provide assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of more severe psychological symptoms.
Although counselling is usually considered a verbal technique, this definition deals with key principles of counselling and points out that there is an enormously broad spectrum of psychological issues which call for help although they are not diagnosed as a psychopathological or psychiatric condition. Moreover, counselling zooms in on the individual and Akanksha Sood and Janesh Gupta (2018) from Manchester and Birmingham emphasised that to the patient, illness entails not only the physical discomfort but all the psychological, social and emotional ramifications and patient autonomy and choice should be an integral part of patient care pathways.
And the authors cut to the chase (p. 43) that 'there has been a steady shift in patient counselling and consent towards supporting patient autonomy over medical paternalism'. It is obvious that this maxim goes hand in hand with Fyodor Vasilyuk's principles of co-experiencing psychotherapy (cf. Vasilyuk et al., 2019), which involves the phenomenology of co-experiencing, cultural-historical psychology and person-centred psychotherapy, the synchronous relationship between the client and therapist in overcoming crises, and anthropological conceptualisations of human awareness. This interdisciplinary approach characterises Russian psychology, e.g. the œuvre of Lev Vygotsky (cf. Vasileva & Balyasnikova, 2019), and its substantial impact on music therapy (cf. Mastnak & Toropova, 2018).
Similar to a wealth of traditional music rites, community-based musical support and open music therapeutic practices which are designed to help people in difficult life conditions, the domain of applied counselling is multifarious and differs considerably from diagnostic manuals and indication for distinct clinical therapy. This enormously broad spectrum comprises issues such mental health problems at work (Henderson et al., 2003), family planning (Okour et al., 2017), childbirth fear (Larsson et al., 2019) or infertility (Monach, 2013). Moreover, counselling is characterised by a high awareness of cultural sensitivity (cf. Gerstein et al., 2009) and takes the religious backgrounds of the clients, e.g. in Islamic counselling (Zakaria & Mat Akhir, 2019), into account.
All these facets and features are very similar to interdisciplinary and culturally sensitive music therapy and entail the problem that often, particularly from an evidence based medical perspective, assessments of studies are inadequate and devaluating. For instance, a systematic review on preoperative counselling for laryngectomy patients (Fitzgerald & Perry, 2016, p. 15) criticises:
Studies on pre-operative counselling for laryngectomees are flawed in design and represent weak levels of evidence. Pre-operative counselling has not been operationalised, resulting in differing paradigms being examined. Aggregation of data and/or results is not possible and the veracity of many studies is questioned.
Such criticism is also known from systematic reviews on music therapy. They rather reveal the epistemological shortcomings of the authors and throw light on inadequate methods for scientific evaluation, hence the urgent need for specific meta-theories for counselling psychology and music therapy and/or music counselling which respect philosophy of science, cross-cultural epistemology, and the broad - both general and discipline-specific - spectrum of scientific methodology. In other words: a narrow application of evidence based medicine assessment designs is neither valid nor helpful.
The academic area of arts therapies of Beijing Normal University emphatically advocates culturally sensitive approaches and this is akin to standpoints of international counselling psychology (Gielen et al., 2008; Pedersen et al., 2008; Hohenshil et al., 2013). There is a genuine awareness of the inner connection between cultures and therapies in the domain of counselling psychology and what Gielen et al. (2004; American Psychological Association, 2016) say is widely in line with principles of the BNU research centre for arts therapies:
In recent years, students of psychology, anthropology, psychiatry, sociology, comparative religion, nursing, and other disciplines have converged in recognizing health and disease as the long-term outcomes of a complex process of biopsychosocial interactions. Therapy, healing, and counseling typically take place in a psychosocial field shaped by culturally constituted forces ... The contributors focus on the interaction of cultural, social, psychological, and biological variables as they influence therapy, counseling, and psychological healing ... as well as detailed descriptions of specific healing traditions in Asia, the Americas, Africa, and the Arab world. Other chapters focus on multicultural considerations, specific populations such as refugees, and the integration of traditional and modern forms of counseling and healing ... psychotherapeutic traditions, and counseling traditions as these span the divide between psychosocial, anthropological, medical, and religious approaches. The emphasis throughout the book is on social interaction between healers, therapists, counselors, and their clients, as well as on the cultural belief systems shaping these interactions.
In the West, we sometimes encounter an astonishing differentiation: Music therapy should be characterised by the relationship between the therapist and the client, while music medicine is considered to just use music itself for therapeutic purposes. The BNU research centre for arts therapies rejects this simplistic position and suggests a complex approach, and it goes without saying that the therapeutic potential of music, e.g. to enhance neuroplasticity, and the therapeutic relationship, e.g. within music-dramatic creative interactions, are not at all mutually exclusive.
In counselling psychology, the relationship between counsellor and client plays an important role and Gelso and Samstag (2008) suggested a triple mode consisting of transference and countertransference, working alliance, and the 'real' relationship. Although some authors rejected the classical model of transference and countertransference and called it a 'sacred cow' (Menaker, 1991), we rather advocate the meta-theoretical view of correspondence theory and regard psychological models as an image that mirrors both the object referred to and the spirit of the psychology's underlying paradigms. In other words: we do not apodictically reject theories but try to explore their epistemological value.
Nonetheless, from the perspective of music counselling the question arises whether a clear differentiation of Gelso and Samstag's distinction is actually possible, and this question goes hand in hand with the artistic quality of the relationship between music counsellor and client. A first important point concerns the client's readiness and aptitude for self-expression. Carl Rogers (1947), who coined the term 'counseling', identified the mission of counselling interview as 'to permit deeper expression
that the client would ordinarily allow himself and Geloso and Samstag (2008) drew attention to the feelings and attitudes the client and the counsellor have towards each other and the way in which those feelings and attitudes are expressed. This approach is very akin to principles of expressive therapies (Malchiodi, 2005), and with specific regard to Paolo Knill's concept of intermodal expressive therapy (cf. Levine, 1999) BNU is about to establish a Chinese school of expressive arts therapies.
Although expression is an essential feature in music counselling, the artistic aspect cannot be limited to this dimension, and especially symbolic and creative interaction come into play: Mutual penetrations of the triple relational mode mentioned above give full play to artistic and psychodynamic processes. Both the client and the counsellor immerse themselves in symbolic interactions, together they create an indivisible musical entity and became a 'creating unity', a 'transitional one'. They use music to explore inter-relational dynamics within the sphere of artistic fiction and get absorbed in the aesthetic experience of improvisation. At this point we not only design artistic processes for counselling purposes but also go in for research on the nature of counselling which inheres in artistic processes. In other words: construction and discovery of arts-based counselling form a sort of 'mutual complementation'. Research on this topic is rather new and musical practices which encompass features of counselling might inspire novel models and associated research.
Practice models of music counselling
Although there are convincing approaches such as Courtney Armstrong's (2016) use of music in her counselling sessions, we cannot speak of an established school of music counselling and there is still the question where this should belong to: to the domain of counselling psychology or to music therapy? Or should it be an autonomous discipline such as psycho-oncology? The following five dissimilar examples should give an idea of the broad spectrum the future discipline of music counselling might cover.
Creative Pansori
Pansori is a genuine Korean musical genre and also regarded as South Korea's authentic musical storytelling or even the Korean Opera. Pansori comprises only very few essential elements such as the storyteller and a drummer, who accompanies and supports (also verbally) the storyteller. On this basis, the Korean music therapist Hyunju Kim developed the genuine Korean music therapeutic model of Creative Pansori (Mastnak & Kim, 2015; Kim & Mastnak, 2016) which was particularly designed for the culturally sensitive treatment of depressive patients in psychiatric settings.
Not only that Creative Pansori has shown convincing clinical results in Korean patients, particularly the role of the therapist, who is also the drummer, is characterised by co-experiencing and thus akin to Fyodor Vasilyuk's psychological notion. Moreover, the multifaceted relationship between therapist and client plays a crucial role in Creative Pansori, and similarities to the therapeutic relationship in counselling are obvious.
Although Creative Pansori is a diagnosis-specific approach aiming at both reduction of symptoms and treatment of the pathogenic source, it also takes the whole personality and life circumstances of the patient into consideration, e.g. how the disease impacts on the patients life-style, family dynamics and co-morbidities such as sleep disorders.
In a nutshell, Creative Pansori shows so many typical features of counselling that there are good reasons to also call it a Korean form of music counselling. It goes without saying that this attribution would not harm the primary characteristics of Creative Pansori as a music therapeutic method and philosophy, but rather calls for research on intersections of therapy and counselling in ethnological and culturally sensitive contexts. For instance, also the Chinese model of Guqin therapy
(founded by the Chinese musician and music therapy researcher Qi Mao ^i) - the Guqin is a
Chinese cither, which looks back to a tradition of some thousand years, the Guqin therapy was created
by the Chinese music therapy researcher Qi Mao - can be regarded as both therapy and
counselling.
Guided Imagery and Music GIM
'Regulative Musiktherapie' RMT (regulatory music therapy) was established in 1968 in the former East Germany and three years later its founder, Christoph Schwabe (1979), presented his new model to music therapeutic circles. RMT can be seen as a depth-psychological receptive music therapeutic approach or music-based psychotherapy, and music is used to evoke responses with psychoanalytic relevance. Moreover, RMT is based on progressive self-awareness and 'symptom-centred activity'.
Later on, in the 1970s, the very similar model of 'Guided Imagery and Music' GIM (McKinney & Honig, 2017) was developed by Helen Bonny (1921-2010), a music therapist, who worked in the USA. It is very likely that Helen Bonny did not know Schwabe's approach as often American music therapy does not consider music therapeutic publications in languages other than English. Similar to Schwabe's approach, some music therapists also regard GIM as a form of psychotherapy with music but not a genuine music therapeutic approach.
In the early 1990s, Mastnak (1993a) suggested depth psychological approaches to music experience in classroom education. Consistent with Wolfgang Roscher's concept of Polyaesthetic Education (cf. Allesch & Schwarzbauer, 2009), the model suggests the use of music as a source for self-discovery with particular focus on symbolisation and unconscious contents. This approach also involves a sort of psycho-educational group-co-experiencing and work with inner processes and their interdependencies with actual life conditions. Being designed as a means for personal growth and self-administered psychohygiene, this approach can also be seen as an educational application of counselling, and comparative research could help to bridge the gap between these disciplines.
Music-rhythmic therapy
The first half of the 20th century gave rise to a wealth of novel educational approaches and concepts which are sometimes summarised under the German umbrella term 'Reformpadagogik' or in English 'Progressive Education'. Many of this movement's principles remind us of counselling, e.g. focus on thematic units, problem solving and self-reflection, experiential and explorative learning, cooperative interaction and mutual support, lifelong learning and competence to deal with challenging situations.
In the broader context of Reformpadagogik, two great minds developed approaches, which also influenced the international educational scene: the Bavarian composer Carl Orff and the Swiss composer Émile Jaques-Dalcroze. Both went in for educational innovations and are considered the founders of Elemental Music Education (Orff) and Eurhythmics (Dalcroze). Due to the therapeutic potential of Orffs approach his second wife, Gertrud Orff, founded her concept of Orff Music Therapy (Voigt, 2013), and similarly Eurhythmics have been used in music therapeutic and special music educational domains (Habron, 2016).
Nonetheless, since the foundation of Orffs music-movement education and Dalcroze's Eurhythmics no comparable therapeutic approach set up an interdisciplinary theoretical framework or advocated cultural sensitivity. Taking into account that Chinese cultural traditions contain practices akin to Orffs and Dalcroze's models and being aware of their educational and therapeutic potential,
Beijing Normal University developed music rhythmic therapy m^W^/n^ as a novel discipline.
Based on an interdisciplinary systemic meta-synthesis involving medicine, neuropsychology, cultural anthropology, philosophy of arts and aesthetics, music rhythmic therapy (Mastnak, 2020b) focuses on the health promoting and curative power of music and movement as well as the artistic and creative nature of the child. Being considered an add-on therapy, it also contributes to paediatric psychiatry (e.g. childhood trauma therapy, communication disorders and internet gaming disorder), paediatric neuro-rehabilitation (e.g. cerebral palsy, foetal alcohol spectrum disorder and poly-lingual withdrawal syndrome), paediatric psychosocial oncology and management of the metabolic syndrome in children.
Although music-rhythmic therapy focuses on pathological symptoms, it greatly takes associated life issues into account and respects the holistic individuality of the child. Similar to counselling, multifaceted relationships play a crucial role in music-rhythmic therapy, as well as mindful co-experiencing and support of self-regulation and empowerment. Although music-rhythmic therapy is not a 'branch' of counselling, important similarities call for further research and perhaps a novel synthesis for advanced application.
Music teachers — 'unconscious counsellors'
Music educators, who teach at music schools or offer private face-to-face instrumental or vocal tuition, more and more report about a certain double function combining traditional teaching and a sort of 'psycho-coaching'. Young people are confronted with challenging life situation and/or experience disturbing processes such as anxieties without obvious reason, they doubt whether living makes sense and feel an inner emptiness or apathy, or they have sleep problems and do not feel at home any more. Teachers realise that this is neither a pretext for avoiding playing nor an excuse for not having practised: These students feel burdened and have no empathetic and mindful adult to talk to.
And yet, music teachers are not trained to analyse such problems and often they cannot provide adequate support. Some of them refuse talking about these issues, but they feel guilty and know that help is desperately needed. Others try to help although they realise their limits and fear their support could even harm the child. Some teachers, however, take what the young person is telling of and invite him/her to transform the contents into music, to express associated feelings through rhythms and sounds and to communicate about these hardships by means of music improvisation.
Nonetheless, these challenges are not new and already three decades ago Mastnak (1993) called music teachers who respond to such issues 'unconscious healers'. They use verbal and music communication, they build a co-experiencing relationship which encourages 'transference and countertransference', they deal with challenging life-conditions and subclinical syndromes, and they try to find viable solutions. In general, what they are doing markedly resembles the features of counselling and there are good reasons to establish academic music educational programmes which take these topics into account and to provide corresponding in-service trainings for music teachers. Such programmes, however, require interdisciplinary collaboration. Associated research is needed and counselling that inheres music tuition has to satisfy professional standards.
Creative-supportive concerts
The young Turkish pianist and educator Ela Cansu Bekgoz and the young Serbian pianist and educator Milica Dimitrijevic (Bekgoz & Dimitrijevic, 2020) launched 'pianoro', a novel concert format for children, which is in line with several features and perspectives of counselling.
At first glance, this concert format complies with arts educational paradigms and can be considered best practice of bridging the gap between music pedagogy and the grand world of music. These attempts, however, are not new and for a few decades also great orchestras and concert agencies have been providing educational programmes. Nonetheless, the main foci are different and in pianoro exploring music and the self are considered vital for the child's development. Moreover, the programme draws attention to the child's fantasy and creativity as key factors of a flourishing personality and intends to promote team spirit and mutually understanding interaction.
Different from continuous educational settings, these concerts are single events evoking momentary aesthetic and creative group-experiences, and there are considered triggers and incentives for arts-based discoveries and both life-shaping and conflict-solving inventiveness. Actual research on this model shall explore developmental psychological benefits and how these experiences can give full play to a child's artistic, expressive, creative and empathetic talent. This concert format can also be considered a sort of music-based short-term group-counselling model.
Considering these five different approaches raises the question how music counselling should find its place within the realms of education, psychotherapy, counselling and public health. This needs discussion and touches upon the problem whether we should establish music counselling as a novel discipline or rather discover facets and elements of counselling in other practices and domains.
Particularly the last option calls for a re-definition of professional duties, competences and limits and will have an impact to academic studies and vocational training.
Philosophical perspectives and academic futures
Fyodor Vasilyuk was an outstandingly important pioneer of integrative psychology and Zaretsky et al. (2018) pointed out that his merits relate to the understanding of psychotherapy as a multi-level psychotechnical system, as well as the awareness that psychological counselling and psychotherapy 'can be thought of as an integral whole, as a multidimensional solution to the problem of the schism in academic psychology and psychological practice'. And they highlighted three lines in Vasilyuk's work: from practice to science, from science to practice, and the line of integrating science and practice in education.
This is akin to what recent health sciences call 'translational medicine' and also characterises arts therapeutic research at Beijing Normal University: the interactive integration of theory and practice. Moreover, Zaretsky emphasised that Fyodor Vasilyuk 'has enriched the Russian tradition of exploring thinking through solving creative tasks', and this paves the way to arts-based counselling.
Particularly in creative artistic counselling sessions we get aware of an integration of theory and practice which differs from exclusively verbal counselling methods: the inter-personal medium is not only a carrier of information and self-expression, but also requires artistic value and aesthetic validity. What every (inspired and authentic) musician and artist is familiar with, gains momentum and shapes music counselling: psychological and artistic processes become an indissociable entity with enormous supportive, re-balancing and healing potential. Fyodor Vasilyuk (2015a) claimed that a psychotherapeutic approach cannot be narrowed down to its technique and underlying theory, but essentially embodies its 'general philosophy'. In music counselling, Vasilyuk's thought goes hand in hand with the ontological idea that playing people and their music form a mystical entity, and the corresponding 'non-verbal' philosophy might inhere in the music itself.
Fyodor Vasilyuk coined the term 'synergetic psychotherapy' and drew attention to what he called 'psychotherapeutic reliance', a complex phenomenon involving awareness, experience, learning and individual growth. In this context he claimed the therapist's complete mental and spiritual presence and criticised mechanical application of techniques, and this is precisely where Vasilyuk's thought meets principles of BNU arts therapies: although mastering professional techniques is requisite, it is not enough for reliable and mindful intervention. Similarities between therapists and musicians become evident: Musicians who only perform their motor skills without having discovered the music's spirit and who do not link their play with their (perhaps repressed or even suffocated) aesthetic soul will not be able to touch the listener's 'heart'. At first glance their virtuosic performance might captivate, but step by step its senselessness comes through. Such considerations also make clear that music counselling cannot be narrowed down to a mono-dimensional reduction of symptoms: The process embraces the whole person - and this is more than just a pathological substance.
In addition to his high merits in the field of counselling, Fyodor Vasilyuk was a key figure in Christian psychology (2015b), he inspired psychotherapeutic ways of spiritual thought and faith, and it seems that such approaches are constantly gaining ground. Particularly in music counselling and music therapy ritual and religious music play an important role and the healing potential of spirituality breaks through, in terms of Vasilyuk (2015c) also 'prayer and silence'. This position throws an inter-
religious bridge e.g. to music counselling in Buddhist contexts, and the Daoist idea of ^^^^ dàyîn xîshëng (Kremer, 2020), the 'grand soundless music', springs to mind.
The more we discuss features of counselling psychology, the œuvre of Fyodor Vasilyuk, interdisciplinary perspectives and the wealth of relevant cultural phenomena, the more we get aware of the enormous potential of music/arts counselling, which calls for cross-cultural collaboration, hopefully with a strong accent on Russia and China.
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