CC BY
52022, Scienceline Publication
Worlds Veterinary Journal
World Vet J, 12(1): 09-18, March 25, 2022
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.54203/scil.2022.wvj2
Microbiological Evaluation and Molecular Discrimination of Milk Samples from Humans and Different Animals
Azza Sayed Mohammed Abuelnaga1, Nagwa Sayed Ata1, Khaled Abd El-Hamid Abd EL-Razik2, Riham Hassan Hedia1, Mona Mohamed Hassan Soliman1 , Mai Mohamed Kandil1, Elgabry Abd-Elalim Elgabry1, and Amany Ahmed Arafa1
'Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt 2Department of Animal Reproduction, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
"•"Corresponding author's Email: [email protected]; : 0000-0003-0871-0632
ABSTRACT
Milk is a highly nutritious food and it is important to be free of any pathogenic microbes that could be transmitted to humans and affect public health. A total of 145 milk samples were collected from humans and different animal species (cow, buffalo, ewe, goat, camel, mare, and donkey) and underwent physical examination (color, odor, and taste), chemical analysis for its components (water, total salt, fat, protein, lactose, and ash), and finally microbiological (bacteriological and mycological) examinations. Standard plate count, preliminary incubation count, lab pasteurized count, coliform, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus species, Salmonella species, yeast, and mold counts were measured. PCR test was performed to differentiate milk from different sources (animals and humans) by producing a specific band for each milk type. The results of the physical examination of different kinds of milk showed different grades of white color with the characteristic odor and taste of each milk type. Chemical examination revealed that the highest water content was in donkey milk and the lowest was in buffalo milk while total solids indicated the highest content in sheep milk and the lowest in donkey milk. The microbiological analysis presented that the standard plate count results were the highest in the milk obtained from sheep and camel, while donkey milk was the least in this regard. Yeast counts were the highest in buffalo milk but cow milk was the highest in mold counts. PCR results of milk types using species-specific primers and DNA template extracted from milk somatic cells revealed a specific band for each milk type as 157, 195, 225, 242, 274, and 711 base pair (bp) for goat, human, sheep, buffalo, cattle milk, and camel milk, respectively. It was concluded that more restrictions must be applied to decrease milk contamination as high microbial counts detected in the present study can affect milk quality, public health, and the dairy industry. PCR used in the current work for milk discrimination used milk somatic cells specifically mitochondrial cytochrome b gene which exhibited high specificity in the PCR reactions and this could be served as a cheap and simple method, compared to other types of PCR.
Keywords: Bacterial count, Fungal count, Milk, PCR INTRODUCTION
Milk serves the nutritional and physiological needs of the offspring. It is high-quality nourishment and a nearly complete human food that can be consumed without any processing steps (Mehta, 2015; Roy et al., 2020). Milk microbial constituents (bacteria and fungi) vary and originate from different sources of defilement, such as the udder skin, milking utensils cleanliness, water, air, animal feed, grass, housing circumstances, fecal matter, and soil (Quigley et al., 2013; Machado et al., 2017).
Pathogenic bacteria present in milk is often considered as a major public health concern, especially for immunocompromised individuals. Keeping fresh milk at a high temperature together with unhygienic practices during the milking process may also result in low-quality milk (Chatterjee et al., 2006). Many milk-borne diseases are transferable to humans through raw or unpasteurized milk consumption (Parekh and Subhash, 2008).
Bacterial counts are determined in raw milk before processing, and their results express the health condition of the mammary gland. Hygiene demands for animals in production herds prevent milk collection from ill animals. Non-hygienic circumstances create serious hazards for customers' health because microbiologically infected raw milk constitutes a source of pathogenic microbes and milk-borne illnesses for humans. The existence of milk-borne diseases is more common in the population consuming raw milk than in those consuming pasteurized milk (Pyz-Lukasik et al., 2015). Raw milk is mainly considered as a perfect growth medium for microbes, including many fungal elements, as raw milk contains all essential nourishments and circumstances that support their growth (Gulbe and Valdovska, 2014). Several studies assured that yeasts and molds can contaminate milk from various sources as ambient air and farmworkers. In most cases, yeasts are the most common, but in some ecosystems, molds are predominant, indicating that the relative proportions of yeasts and molds can differ significantly (Lavoie et al., 2012). Many different methods have been used for the identification of species, including chromatographic (Pellegrino et al., 1991), immunological (Addeon et al., 1995), electrophoretic (Cartoni et al., 1998), reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, and ELISA (Haasnoot et al., 2014), as well as chemical methods (Makadiya and Pandey, 2015).
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ISSN 2322-4568
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Recently, molecular approaches have been used for species discrimination, and it has been recommended due to its simplicity, sensitivity, repeatability, and reproducibility (Bottero et al., 2003). PCR method has been successfully used to identify different meats from domesticated animals and meat products (Abd El-Razik et al., 2019; Abuelnaga et al., 2021). Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) assay is one of the recent molecular techniques which can be applied for the differentiation of various types of milk. Besides, PCR-RFLP has a lower cost in comparison with other methods, such as real-time PCR (Abdel-Rahman, 2017; Abd El-Razik et al., 2019). The cytochrome b gene was reported to be highly polymorphic and could be used to differentiate the buffalo from cow species (Bellagamba et al., 2001).
The aim of the present study was to investigate the microbial diversity of raw milk from human and different animal species. In this regard, PCR was used to make a differentiation between milk species from humans and those of different animal species. The result of the present study could have an important impact on improving the quality of the raw milk and dairy product industry.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Ethical approval
The current work was approved by the Medical Research Ethics Committee, National Research Centre, Egypt (19156).
Sampling
A total of 145 milk samples, including 5 milk samples from humans (according to guidelines described by Lovelady et al., 2002) and 20 samples from each animal species from Baladi breeds (cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, donkey, and horse) were collected from June 2020 to June 2021. Milk samples were examined physically (color, odor, and taste), chemically, and microbiologically and the results were recorded.
Chemical analysis of milk samples
Milk samples collected from humans and different animal species (cow, buffalo, camel, ewe, goat, mare, and donkey) underwent chemical analysis according to Mehta (2015).
Microbiological evaluation of milk
Bacterial counts of microorganisms in milk
The examined milk samples were subjected to standard plate count, preliminary incubation count (psychrotrophs), Lab pasteurized count (in a water bath at 77.6°C for 30 seconds), and coliform count at the NRC laboratory, Egypt, according to the methods described by Martin et al. (2011).
Detection of microorganisms in milk
Detection of different microbial contaminants present in milk was conducted as previously performed by Quinn et al. (2011).
Escherichia coli count
Escherichia coli (E. coli) was identified and confirmed by colony morphology on eosin methylene blue agar (EMB) (Oxoid company) and performing biochemical tests according to Bergey and Holt (1994).
Staphylococcus count
According to the plate count technique of APHA (1992), Staphylococcus aureus was counted using the direct plate count method on Baird Parker agar enriched with egg yolk tellurite emulsion (Oxoid company) (Lancette and Bennett, 2001).
Salmonella count
Isolation and quantification of Salmonella were carried out using the method described by Quinn et al. (2002). The samples were enriched by inoculating a sterile swab from milk sample into 5 ml of Rappaport Vassiliadis broth (Sigma-Aldrich, Inc., USA) and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. Then, a loopful of enriched Rappaport-Vassiliadis broth was streaked onto xylose lysine desoxycholate (XLD) agar (Oxoid Ltd., Basingstoke, Hampshire, England) and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. The colonies were examined for the characteristic red colonies with the black center of Salmonella with or without hydrogen sulfide. In the next step, several biochemical tests were performed following the standard protocol (Cappuccino and Sherman, 1996).
Fungal count in milk samples
The milk samples were serially (102 to 106) diluted in sterile 0.1% (w/v) peptone solution, then tenfold serial dilutions were performed for counting of fungi under complete aseptic conditions (Lavoie et al., 2012). In the next step, 1 ml of the prepared milk dilutions was added into a petri dish in duplicate. Then, 10-20 ml molten sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA, cooled to 42-45°C) were poured into each petri dish. The media and the dilutions were blended by whirling
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gently clockwise and anti-clockwise and were left until solidification at room temperature (Soliman et al., 2019). Cultured plates were put upside down to prevent contamination and they were kept in an incubator at 25°C for 3 -5 days. Yeast colonies that were defined by being creamy, dull-white, pink, yellow, regular, and irregular patterns were counted utilizing a colony counter and yeast count/gram was estimated and recorded. Moreover, for mold count, the plates were kept at 250C for 5-7 days at a reversed position. Amid the incubation time, the plates were inspected routinely for the characteristic star-shaped mold structure, and colonies were numbered and indexed (APHA, 1992).
Polymerase chain reaction
DNA extraction
Milk samples (25 ml) from each milk type were gathered from cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, horse, donkey, and human, and centrifuged at 2200 g for 5 minutes for sedimentation of milk specimen. Then, 1 ml of the sediment was re-mixed with 200 pl TE (1 mM EDTA, 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH = 7.6), and 300 pi 0.5 M EDTA, pH = 8), and centrifuged at 3000 g for 10 minutes to prevent blocking by casein (Murphy et al., 2002; Psifidi et al., 2010). Milk pellet was then diluted in 200 pl of phosphate-buffered saline and DNA was extracted using GF-1 Tissue DNA extraction kit (Cat.-No.GF-TD-050, Vivantis Co., Malaysia) according to the company instructions with elution of DNA in 50 pL of elution buffer, then DNA was stored at -20°C until use.
Polymerase chain reaction
The reaction was applied in 25 pl reaction volume containing 12.5 pl of 2 x COSMO PCR RED Master Mix (Cat. W1020300X, Willofort Co., UK.), 1 pl (0.1 mM) of each primer, 9.5 pl of Double distilled water, and 1 pl of the purified DNA. The reaction steps composed of one cycle of 95°C for 2 minutes taken after 35 cycles of 95°C for 1 minute, annealing for 30 seconds (Table 1), 72°C for 45 seconds, and the final extension at 72°C for 10 minutes (GS-96 gradient thermocycler, Hercuvan, Malaysia). The amplification PCR products were visualized by 1.5% agarose gel electrophoresis colored with ViSafe Red Gel Stain, Vivantis Co., Malaysia). PCR products and 100 bp DNA ladder were electrophoresed at 100 V and examined using InGenius3 gel documentation system (Syngene, UK).
Statistical analysis
Results were measured statistically for descriptive analysis (mean, maximum, minimum, and standard error) utilizing SPSS 14.
Table 1. Species-specific PCR primers for the amplification of human, cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, horse, and donkey milk samples in Egypt during 2020-2021_
Species Sequence 5'- 3' Annealing temperature PCR product Reference
Cattle (Forward) GACCTCCCAGCTCCATCAAACATCTCATCTTGATGAAA 60°C 274bp Matsunaga et al. (1999)
(Reverse) CTAGAAAAGTGTAAGACCCGTAATATAAG
Buffalo (Forward) TAGGCATCTGCCTAATTCTG (Reverse) ACTCCGA TGTTTCATGTTT CT 61°C 242bp Rajapaksha et al.(2003)
Sheep (Forward) TTAAAGACTGAGAGCATGATA 58°C 225bp Ilhak and Arslan (2007)
(Reverse) ATGAAAGAGGCAAATAGATTTTCG
goat (Forward) GACCTCCCAGCTCCATCAAACATCTCATCTTGATGAAA (Reverse) CTCGACAAATGTGAGTTACAGAGGGA 58°C 157bp Matsunaga et al. ( 1999)
Camel (Forward) ACCACATTTCAACTATTTCAAAACCG 61°C 711bp Deng et al. (2020)
(Reverse) ATGTACGGCTGCGAGGGCGGTAA
Horse (Forward) CTATCCGACACACCCAGAAGTAAAG 61°C 153bp Kesmen et al. (2010)
(Reverse) GATGCTGGGAAATATGATGATCAGA
Donkey (Forward) ATCCTACTAACTATAGCCGTGCTA 57°C 145bp Kesmen et al. (2007)
(Reverse) CAGTGTTGGGTTGTACACTAAGATG
Human (Forward) CAGCAGCCATTCAAGCAATGC 60°C 195bp Kapoor et al. (2013)
(Reverse) ATCGGTGGGTTAAGTTTATTAAGTGT
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Milk is a great microbial growth medium when the temperature is optimum. It is easily contaminated and spoiled in case it is processed in an unsanitary manner. Many milk-borne outbreaks of human illnesses have spread due to the contamination of milk by unclean dairy employees' hands, unclean utensils, flies, and contaminated water supplies (Oliver et al., 2005).
Physical examinations of milk specimens were performed in the current study and the results indicated different grades of white color with the specific odor and taste for each type of milk (Table 2). The chemical analysis presented the average composition of different milk specimens (Table 3). In the present work, the milk samples contained water content of 88, 83, 80.6, 86, 87.8, 87.4, 90.9, and 89% in cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, human, donkey, and horse milk, respectively. However, Mehta (2015) obtained 84.2, 86.3, 83.7, 86.5, 87.61, and 87.43% in buffalo, cow, sheep,
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goat, camel, and human milk, respectively. Total solids in the current study were 12.35, 16.5, 17.5, 12.8, 12.1, 12.5, 11.5, and 13.8% in cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, human, donkey, and horse milk, respectively, but Park and Haenlein (2006) and Guha et al. (2021) showed 14.4, 12.1, 16.3, 10.2 and 11% in camel, goat, sheep, donkey, and mare milk, respectively.
These differences in constituents of different types of milk components may be due to nutritional, genetic, and environmental variables that influence both major and minor components. The composition of milk also influences its suitability as a raw material for various dairy products, as well as its nutritional value and organoleptic and physicochemical properties (Alichanidis et al., 2016). According to the pasteurized milk ordinance standard, the maximum bacterial count in raw milk is 105 cells per ml. Several studies have also shown a high total bacterial count in milk samples. The high count may be due to milk handling and contamination from animal bedding and these results match with the current study in standard plate count results. The present work revealed that goat milk was the highest in standard plate count while camel milk was the least (Hayes et al., 2001; Muhammad et al., 2009; Lingathurai and Vellathurai, 2010). Minj and Behera (2012) observed that in cow's milk the average total viable count of rural milk specimens was 8.257 ± 0.937 log CFU/ml and that of the urban milk specimens was 8.756 ± 0.803 log CFU/ml. Nearly similar counts were also obtained concerning the preliminary incubation counts of rural and urban milk specimens. The mean counts of preliminary incubation values in rural specimens were 8.522 ± 0.929 log CFU/ml and the urban specimens were 8.889 ± 0.424 log CFU/ml. Moreover, for lab pasteurized count (LPC), the average bacterial load of the rural specimen was 8.083 ± 0.081 log CFU/ml and that of the urban milk specimen was 7.500 ± 0.739 log CFU/ml. Lower results were reported by Massouras et al. (2020) as they reported that the total aerobic mesophilic and psychrotrophic counts ranged 2.18-2.71 log CFU/ml and 1.48-2.37 log CFU/ml, respectively.
The bacterial counts in different types of milk are presented in Table (4). The preliminary incubation count provides a more accurate picture of psychrophilic (cold-loving) bacteria and the quality of cleanliness on the farm. Before making any conclusions, the preliminary incubation count should always be compared to the Total viable count of the fresh and un-incubated samples. According to the American Public Health Association (APHA, 1992), the highest allowed preliminary incubation count is 200000 CFU/ml, however, counts as low as 50000 CFU/ml are still possible. The preliminary incubation count in the current work is considered within the permissible limit. The highest preliminary incubation count was in goat milk and the least was in ewe milk.
The LPC is frequently used to assess the efficacy of farm hygienic conditions providing the relative number of organisms that may survive in the pasteurized milk specimen. Lab pasteurized counts in warmed milk were significantly lower than standard plate counts. Counts more than 300 CFU/ml are indicative of a source of contamination. Elevated LPC values are typically associated with chronic or repeated cleaning problems; the bacteria isolated from the LPC can survive pasteurization, but most of them cannot reproduce in refrigeration temperature and remain static, and some even vanish (Murphy and Carey, 2007). The results showed that the highest lab count was in goat milk while the least was in camel milk. Moreover, a high bacterial count was in goat milk and it was indicative of high contamination.
The absence of most pathogenic bacteria in camel milk might be due to the activity of protective proteins (Lysozyme, Lactoferrin, Lactoperoxidase, Immunoglobulin G and A) of camel milk. As reported by Barbour et al. (1984) and El-Agamy (1992), camel milk lysozyme (LZ) was effective against Salmonella. Lactoperoxidase was bacteriostatic against the Gram-positive strains and showed a bactericidal effect against Gram-negative cultures. Coliforms are considered typical flora of human and animal digestive tracts and several milk-borne outbreaks of human illness have been propagated. They have been employed as bacteriological quality indicators for milk and its products (Chatterjee et al., 2006). In the present work, the coliform count showed the highest value in donkey milk samples 1.1 x 103 ± 2.4 x 102 and the least load was in camel milk 8.9 x 10 ± 2.2 x 10, while the highest E. coli value was observed in buffalo milk 8.5 x 10 ± 0.5 x 10 and the least was in cow milk 2 x 10 ± 0.4 x 10. Staphylococcus (Staph) species showed the highest count in goat milk 4.6 x 103 ± 1.7 x 103 and the least count in sheep milk as 2.36 x 102 ± 0.66 x 102. Minj and Behera (2012) recorded in cow's milk higher values of the enteric count, while Adugna and Eshetu (2021) showed a lower count in the coliform count.
Table 2. Physical examination of different milk samples from animals and humans in Egypt during 2020-2021
Species Color Odor Taste
Human Little white Normal Sweet
Cow Yellowish white Characteristic fresh Sweet
Buffalo Creamy white Characteristic fresh Sweet bitter
Sheep Bright white Freshly milk sheepy flavor Creamy sweet
Goat Very white Characteristic odor of freshly milk goat Viscous sweet
Camel Very white Freshly milk camel Salty due to vitamin C
Donkey White Good palatable Very sweet due to lactose
Horse White Good palatable Very sweet due to lactose
Table 3. Chemical analysis of different milk samples from animals and humans in Egypt during 2020-2021
Milk Water (%) Total solids (%) Fat (%) Protein (%) Lactose (%) Ash (%)
Human 87.4 12.5 1.8 1.9 7.1 0.2
Cow 88 12.35 3.8 3.7 4.6 0.7
Buffalo 83 16.5 6.8 4.2 4.9 0.8
Sheep 80.6 17.5 7.4 5.5 4.7 0.9
Goat 86 12.8 4.4 3.9 4.1 0.8
Camel 87.8 12.1 3.0 2.5 1.3 0.7
Donkey 90.9 11.5 1.4 2.0 6.9 0.4
Horse 89 13.8 1.9 2.5 6.8 0.3
Table 4. The bacterial count in different types of milk in Egypt during 2020-2021
Cow
Buffalo
Camel
Sheep
Goat
Horse
Donkey
Human
Standard plate count
Minimum Maximum Mean±SE
2 x 103 8 x 106
1.6x106 ± 0.52 x 106
1 x 104 6 x 106
1.17 x 106 ± 0.39 x 106
2 x 104
4 x 106 8.9 x 105 ± 2.7 x 105
1 x 104 6 x 106
8.9 x 105± 3.3 x 105
1 x 104 6 x 107 8.6 x 106± 3.2 x 106
8 x 102 1 x 107
1.3 x 106 ± 0.57 x 106
8 x 102 1 x 102
6 x 106 3 x 103
1.1 x 106 ± 0.41 x 106 1.3 x 102 ± 5.6 x 102
Preliminary incubation
Minimum Maximum Mean±SE
1x 102
3x105
2.5x104 ± 1.4x104
1 x 102 8 x 104
2.3 x 104± 6.6 x 103
1 x 102 8 x 104
7.9 x 103 ± 4.09 x 103
1 x 102
2 x 104
2.7 x 103 ± 1.02 x 103
1 x 102
2 x 106
1.02x105±9.9x104
1 x 102 4 x 104
3.8 x103 ± 1.9 x 103
100 8 x 104
5.5 x 103 ± 3.9 x 103
6 x 10 1.1 x 102
9.4 x 10 ± 0.9 x 10
Lab pasteurized
Minimum Maximum Mean±SE
100 4 x 103 2.9 x 102± 2 x 102
100 1 x 103
1.3 x 102± 0.5 x 102
100 3 x 102 0.4 x 102± 0.18 x 102
100 3 x 103 2.9 x 102 ± 1.49 x 102
100 2 x 104
1.7 x 103 ± 1.08 x 103
100 8 x 102
0.8 x 102 ± 0.4 x 102
100 3 x 103 1.9x102 ± 1.4 x 102
Coliform
Minimum Maximum Mean±SE
3
1.1 x 103
9.7 x 10 ± 5.3 x 10
90 7 x 103 9.29 x 102 ± 3.8 x 102
95 4 x 102 8.9 x 10 ± 2.2 x 10
10 1 x 103
1.3 x 102 ± 0.52 x 102
9
9 x 104 4.9 x 103± 4.4 x 103
10 1 x 103 1.8 x 102 ± 0.6 x 102
100 5 x 103 1.1 x 103 ± 2.4 x 102
0
5 x 10 10 ± 10
Escherichia coli
Minimum Maximum Mean±SE
2
9.3 x 10 2 x 10 ± 0.4 x 10
20 100
8.5 x 10 ± 0.5 x 10
40
1 x 102
2.7 x 10 ± 0.8 x 10
12 100
3.7 x 10 ± 0.9 x 10
9 100
6.9 x 10 ± 0.8 x 10
20 2 x 102
5.9 x 10 ± 1.1 x 10
50
1 x 102
5.3 x 10 ± 0.9 x 10
Staphylococcus species
Minimum Maximum Mean±SE
1 x 102 1 x 104
1.7x103 ± 5.8x102
1 x 102 9 x 103 2.7 x 103 ± 7.8 x 102
8 x 10 1 x 103
2.5 x 102 ± 0.66 x 102
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1 x 103
2.36 x 102 ± 0.66 x 102
1 x 102 3 x 104 4.6 x 103 ± 1.7 x 103
100 3 x 103 5.05 x 102 ± 1.7 x 102
100 0 9 x 103 10
1.3 x 103 ± 5.4 x 102 0.2 x 10 ± 0.2 x 10
Mean ± SE: Mean ± standard error
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ItBHBBPeB Abuelnaga ASM, Ata NS, Abd EL-Razik KhA, Hedia RH, Soliman MMH, Kandil MM, Elgabry EA, and Arafa AA (2022). Microbiological Evaluation and Molecular Discrimination of Milk Samples from Humans and Different Animals. World Vet. J., 12 (1): 09-18. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.54203/scil.2022.wvj2
In Buffalo milk, similar results in the coliform count were obtained by Gurler et al. (2013) as they recorded mean values of 2.95 ± 0.21 log10 cfu/ml and nearly equal counts in Staph species count (2.46 ± 024 log10 cfu/ml) and lower count in E. coli (1.10 ± 0.17 log10 cfu/ml). However, Han et al. (2007) recorded lower coliform and Staph species count (2.42 and 1.68 log10 cfu/ml), respectively, and a higher count of E. coli (1.53 log10 cfu/ml). In sheep and goat milk, Ombarak and Elbagory (2017) recorded lower counts of coliform and Staph species with mean count values of 6.47 ± 2.17 x 105 and 1.66 ± 0.85 x 105 CFU/ml in goat and ewe milk samples, respectively, and Staph species with mean count values of 1.41 x 104 and 6.67 x 104 CFU/ml in goat and ewe milk, respectively. In camel, Bassuony et al. (2014) recorded no detection of E. coli, Staph, and Salmonella and obtained a lower coliform count.
In mares, Czyzak-Runowska et al. (2018) did not detect the pathogenic Salmonella spp. and coliforms in the raw milk but Bauzad et al. (2019) reported a high rate of E. coli contamination in buffalo milk samples in all udder milk and farm milk samples in Curio and that may be due to several factors. These factors were mainly the low hygiene and sanitation during raw milk production at the farm level. According to Nurwantoro and Mulyani (2003), E. coli contamination could be caused by poor handling of milk, inadequate sanitation, and the environmental factors of the mesophilic temperature and the neutral pH.
Elevated count values of yeasts and molds in milk are quite uncommon because of the neutral pH of milk bacteria to prevail and their existence in large counts in milk is considered unacceptable due to its ability to deteriorate the sensory evaluation of milk (Lues et al., 2003).
In the present study, yeast and mold counts of different types of milk showed the highest yeast count in goat milk and the least in donkey milk, while the highest mold count was in cow milk and the least in mare milk (Table 5).
Higher fungal counts of 3.71 ± 0.83 cfu/ml were obtained by Adugna and Eshetu (2021) from milk samples in Ethiopia. In buffalo milk, Gurler et al. (2013) in Turkey recorded lower counts (2.63 ± 0.25 log10 cfu/ml), compared to the current study. Han et al. (2007) recorded a higher fungal count in buffalo milk as they reported 1.79 log10 cfu/ml in China. Regarding camel milk, Bassuony et al. (2014) recorded no detection of yeast in Egypt while Ismaili et al. (2016) detected high yeast and mold count in Egypt as the counts of yeast and mold were 3.13 x106 and 1.60 x 105 cfu ml, respectively.
In the present work, Salmonella was not isolated. Ombarak and Elbagory (2015) obtained the same result as they recorded that Salmonella was not isolated in any of examined raw milk samples. Bogdanovicova et al. (2016) did not detect Salmonella in sheep and goat milk while Abbas et al. (2013) recorded Salmonella in a low percentage (6.67%). The presence of Salmonella and other types of pathogenic bacteria in milk has been the cause of public health problems, especially for those persons who consume Salmonella contaminated milk.
Previous studies have assured that breast milk contains an important variety of bacteria that can be transmitted to the babies together with various other nourishments and immunological components. These bacteria are beneficial and could have a protective effect. They can also stimulate the immune system and add some of the first colonizers in the infant microbiome. Boix-Amoros et al. (2017) obtained higher bacterial and fungal counts as they reported 8.9 x 105 cells/ml and 3.5 x 105 cells/ml for bacterial and fungal counts, respectively.
Many approaches, such as chemical, immunological, and molecular approaches, have been used to determine the species origin of raw milk. PCR-RFLP (Abdelfatah et al., 2015), multiplex PCR (Bottero et al., 2003), Real-time PCR (Liao et al., 2017), and DNA-based fluorometric approach (Kounelli et al., 2017) are some of the molecular methods available for distinguishing closely related species.
Polymerase chain reaction used in the present study was ordinary PCR which could be cost-effectively and simply applied, compared to other types of PCR. For the identification of cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat, camel, horse, donkey, and human milk samples, the accuracy of the species-specific primers and ideal PCR circumstances were utilized.
For molecular identification of milk from humans and different animals (buffaloes, sheep, goat, camel, horse, donkey, and human milk), species-specific primers and ideal PCR circumstances were performed. The primers yielded distinct species-specific PCR products of 274, 242, 225, 157, 711, and 195 bp for cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat, camel, and human milk samples, respectively (Figure 1). Horse and donkey milk DNA provided the expected products (153 bp and 145 bp, respectively) as shown in Figures 2 and 3. These PCR bands were produced exclusively from the DNA retrieved from animal and human mitochondrial cytochrome b genes and exhibited no cross-matching with the DNA from other species Figures 1-3.
The present work implemented a fast, sensitive, practical, animal-friendly, and cost-effective source of genomic DNA extraction from milk somatic cells of different animals (cattle, sheep, goats, and horses). Milk was considered an excellent source of genomic DNA, and 10 ml of raw milk was sufficient to yield a significant volume of DNA appropriate for molecular analysis, such as PCR (Psifidi et al., 2010; Pokorska et al., 2016). Six different DNA extraction techniques were optimized, tested, and compared for the extraction of DNA from ovine milk samples. The primers used in the present study showed high specificity in the PCR reaction and succeed in the discrimination of different milk samples obtained from humans and animals.
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Table 5. Total yeast and mold count of different types of milk in Egypt during 2020-2021
Yeast Mold
Minimum Maximum Mean±SE Minimum Maximum Mean± SE
Cow 20 1 x 103 2.4 x 102 ± 7.6 x 10 8 4 x 102 4 x 10 ± 1.9 x 10
Buffalo 10 4 x 102 7.5 x 10 ± 2.2 x 10 6 9 x 10 2.3 x 10 ± 0.7 x 10
Sheep 15 1 x 102 7.4 x 10 ± 1.1 x 10 8 7 x 10 3.4 x 10 ± 0.7 x 10
Goat 14 3 x 103 6.19 x 102 ± 2.3 x 102 7 6 x 10 2.1 x 10 ± 0.5 x 10
Horse 9 1 x 102 1.8 x 10 ± 0.8 x 10 5 2 x 10 0.3 x 10 ± 0.1 x 10
Camel 10 1 x 102 2.7 x 10 ± 0.8 x 10 3 6 x 10 0.4 x 10 ± 0.3 x 10
Donkey 12 9 x 10 0.6 x 10 ± 0.4 x 10 10 1 x 102 1.2 x 10 ± 0.6 x 10
Human 5 1.5 x 10 0.56 x 10 ± 0.2 x 10 1 0.3 x 10 0.13 x 10 ± 0.058 x 10
Mean ± SE: Mean ± standard error
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
KOObp
700bp
GOObp 71 Ibp
50(lbp ^mm
400bp m m
JOObp . .
200b p 225bp ST 274bP
I57bp
lOObp
Figure 1. The PCR product of different types of milk amplified with species-specific primers. 1: Molecular marker (100 bp), 2: Goat milk,; 3: Human milk, 4: Sheep meat, 5: Buffalo milk, 6: Cattle milk, 7: Camel milk
Figure 2. The PCR product amplified with horse-specific primers. 1: Molecular marker (100 bp), 2: Negative control, 3 and 4: Horse milk samples (153bp)
Figure 3. The PCR product amplified with donkey-specific primers. 1: Molecular marker (100 bp), 2: Negative control, 3 and 4: Donkey milk samples (145bp).
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CONCLUSION
Milk is considered as a complete food for human beings as it is rich in various constituents that can also support the growth of different microbes, so monitoring microbial contamination of milk implemented in the current work is crucial to protect human beings from milk-borne microbes. In the present study, DNA was extracted from milk somatic cells specifically mitochondrial cytochrome b gene which exhibited high specificity in the PCR reactions. This method can succeed in the identification of eight different types of milk. Therefore, it can serve as a simple, sensitive, and reproducible method to be easily applied and those results will be the core of further studies on milk and its byproducts.
DECLARATIONS
Authors' contribution
Azza Sayed Mohammed Abuelnaga and Nagwa Sayed Ata designed the study, participated in performing the experiments and analyzing the data. Khaled Abd El-Hamid Abd El-Razik participated in designing the study, performing the experiments, and writing the manuscript. Riham Hassan Hedia participated in analyzing the data and writing the manuscript. Mona Mohamed Hassan Soliman participated in performing the experiments and writing the manuscript. Mai Mohamed Kandil, Elgabry Abd-Elalim ELgabry, and Amany Ahmed Arafa participated in performing the experiments and analyzing the data. All authors checked and confirm the final draft of the manuscript before submission to the journal.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Ethical considerations
Ethical issues (including plagiarism, consent to publish, misconduct, data fabrication and/or falsification, double publication and/or submission, and redundancy) have been checked by the authors.
Consent to publish
The authors agreed to publish the article.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by a grant (12050309) from the National Research Centre (NRC) in Egypt.
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