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78УДК 81'25 UDC 81 '25
DOI: 10.24412/2713-0231-2021-1-41-50
Нижнева-Ксенофонтова Надежда Леонидовна*
Доктор гуманитарных наук в области языкознания, Белорусский государственный университет, Республика Беларусь, 220030, г. Минск, ул. К. Маркса, д. 31, тел.: +375173651069, e-mail: nadnikolaeva@bk.ru
Нижнева Наталья Николаевна
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор, Белорусский государственный университет, Республика Беларусь, 220030, г. Минск, ул. К. Маркса, д. 31,
тел.: +375173651069, e-mail: nizhneva_nn@mail.ru
Nizhneva-Ksenofontova Nadezhda Leonidovna
Grand Ph.D. (Philology), Belarusian State University, Minsk, Belarus
Nizhneva Nadezhda Nikolaevna
Grand Ph.D. (Education), Belarusian State University, Minsk, Belarus
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION: ISSUES OF TRANSLATION
МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНАЯ КОММУНИКАЦИЯ: ПРОБЛЕМЫ ПЕРЕВОДА Abstract
The article is devoted to the description of issues of translation in connection with cross-cultural communication. From the point of view of miscommunication the following problems should be under investigation: sources of misunderstanding; misunderstandings and sequencing in conversation; successive misunderstandings in conversation; the context of situation; discourse roles and (mis)interpretation in social interaction; social roles in miscommunication; the development of miscommunication in situated discourse; structures of situated misunderstandings; forms and functions of repair — attempts in miscommunication; non-realized misunderstandings; miscommunication complexes in interaction; miscommunication and face considerations in social interaction. Translation as an eminently communicative activity is considered to be the process of conveying message across linguistic and cultural barriers. To illustrate this approach some techniques and strategies are analyzed. Different examples have been chosen and analyzed that may be particularly apt for discussions on translation problems. Special attention is paid to culture's influ-
© Нижнева-Ксенофонтова Н. Л., Нижнева Н. Н., 2020
ence on communication, functional translation theory, equivalence and adaptation, specific cultural domains. In order to cope with all difficulties of translation the following issues are considered: cultural transposition; transliteration; cultural transplantation; compromise; compensation in kind; compensation by merging; compensation in place; compensation by splitting. In accordance with the functional approach the translator is considered to be an expert in cross-cultural communication and his bicultural competence or intercultural and cross-cultural competence should be well developed.
Аннотация
Описаны проблемы перевода в связи с межкультурной коммуникацией. С точки зрения недопонимания следует исследовать следующие проблемы: источники недопонимания; недопонимания и последовательность в разговоре; последовательные недопонимания в разговоре; контекст ситуации; дискурсивные роли и (неверная) интерпретация в социальном взаимодействии; социальные роли в недопонимании; развитие недопонимания в ситуационном дискурсе; структуры ситуативных недопониманий; формы и функции исправления - попытки недопонимания; нереализованные недопонимания; комплексы недопонимания во взаимодействии; недопонимание и лицевые соображения в социальном взаимодействии. Перевод, будучи в высшей степени коммуникативной деятельностью, рассматривается как процесс передачи сообщения через языковые и культурные барьеры. Чтобы проиллюстрировать этот подход, проанализированы некоторые методы и стратегии. Были отобраны и исследованы различные примеры, которые могут оказаться подходящими для обсуждения проблем перевода. Особое внимание уделяется влиянию культуры на коммуникацию, теории функционального перевода, эквивалентности и адаптации, специфическим областям культуры. Чтобы справиться со всеми трудностями перевода, рассматриваются следующие вопросы: культурная транспозиция; транслитерация; культурная трансплантация; компромисс; компенсация натурой; компенсация слиянием; компенсация на месте; компенсация расщеплением. В соответствии с функциональным подходом переводчик считается экспертом в области межкультурной коммуникации и его бикультурная компетентность, или межкультурная компетентность, должны быть хорошо развиты.
Keywords: communication, misinterpretation, culture, translation theory, equivalence and adaptation, techniques and strategies of translation.
Ключевые слова: коммуникация, неверная интерпретация, культура, теория перевода, эквивалентность и адаптация, методы и стратегии перевода.
Introduction
Modern functional translation theory has defined translation and interpreting as complex communicative action, the main aim of which is to establish communication between members of different cultures. In other words translation as an eminently communicative activity is considered to be the process of conveying message across linguistic and cultural barriers. To illustrate this approach some techniques and strategies are analyzed in the article. Different examples have been chosen and analyzed that may be particularly apt for discussions on translation problems.
Main part
The concept of communication
Discussing problems arising from intercultural and cross-cultural communication, it is necessary to examine the concept of communication.
In general, communication is defined as:
- A process of creating and sharing meaning through the transmission and exchange of signs. This process requires interaction within oneself, between people, or between people and machine.
- A process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior.
- Conscious attempt to convey information and ideas to an audience.
Three different levels in communication are distinguished [Witte 1992: 329-342]:
(1) the object level, which refers to the 'contents' of what is being communicated;
(2) the communicative level, which refers to the intention/purpose behind the communicative
act;
(3) the personal/interaction level by which we refer to the idea the interactants gain of each other and to the relationship that evolves between them in the course of the interaction. This level is usually termed "metacommunicative" [Kendon 1981].
Historians, linguists, educators, neurologists, mathematicians, sociologists study different communication problems such as: communication research methods and theory; speakers, listeners and communication; interconnection of language, culture and communication; interpersonal communication; basic concepts and a current perspective of intercultural and cross-cultural communication; cultural communication and intercultural and cross-cultural contact; intercultural and cross-cultural communication competence; professional translation as an act of communication; translation as a process of linguistic and cultural adaptation; family communication; communication acts; small group/large group communication; communication and gender; communication in contexts; political communication, leadership communication etc.
W. Gudykunst [Gudykunst, Hammer 1988] describes nature of communication in the following way: communication is a symbolic activity; communication is a process involving the transmitting and interpreting of messages; communication involves the creation of meaning; communication takes place at varying levels of awareness; communicators make predictions about the outcomes of their communication behavior; intention is not a necessary condition for communication; every communication message has a content dimension and a relationship dimension; communicators impose structure on their interactions.
Miscommunication may be caused by linguistic and/or situational context. In this connection the following problems are under investigation: sources of misunderstanding; misunderstandings and sequencing in conversation; successive misunderstandings in conversation; the context of situation; discourse roles and (mis)interpretation in social interaction; social roles in miscommunication; the development of miscommunication in situated discourse; structures of situated misunderstandings; forms and functions of repair — attempts in miscommunication; non-realized misunderstandings; miscommunication complexes in interaction; miscommunication and face considerations in social interaction.
Beck [Beck 1976] argues that misinterpretations occur because:
1. We can never know the state of mind — the attitudes, thoughts, and feelings — of other people.
2. We depend on messages, which are frequently ambiguous, to inform us about the attitudes and wishes of other people.
3. We use our own coding system, which may be defective, to decipher these messages.
4. Depending on our state of mind at a particular time, we may be biased in our method of interpreting other people's behavior.
5. The degree to which we believe that we are correct in divining another person's motives and attitudes is not related to the actual accuracy of our belief [Gudykunst 2003: 5-12].
Culture's influence on communication
In order to communicate effectively it is necessary to take into consideration the interconnection and interdependence of culture and communication because, on the one hand, our cultures influence our communication and, on the other hand, our communication influences our cultures. To communicate effectively with people from other cultures, we must be aware of culture's influence on our communication.
Culture affects our communication in different ways; provides us with patterned ways of dealing with various types of information; influences what we perceive, how we interpret, and how we respond to messages both verbally and nonverbally; shapes and colors our image of reality; provides the "lens" through which we view the world; the "logic" by which we order it; the "grammar" by which it makes sense [Kevin, Black 1993: 57]. Birdwhistell [Birdwhistell 1952] suggests that culture and communication are interconnected.
The term culture usually is reserved to refer to the systems of knowledge used by relatively large numbers of people (i.e., cultural ordering at the societal level). The boundaries between cultures usually, but not always, coincide with political or national boundaries between countries [Gudykunst 2003: 17].
Culture is also defined as "the sum of a way of life, including expected behavior, beliefs, values, language and living practices shared by members of a society. It consists of both explicit and implicit rules through which experience is interpreted" [Herbig 1998].
Linguists study: culture of conversation; visual availability of culture; culture bumps, culture learning and teaching and other problems.
Exploring the ways in which various groups within our society have related to each other is a key to opening channels for cross-cultural communication and fostering the development of cross-cultural communicative competence as the complex of abilities that are necessary for effective and appropriate interaction with others. And the process of cross-cultural adaptation is seldom smooth and easy.
Towards better understanding between cultures
In accordance with the functional approach the translator (throughout this article "translator" will refer to both translators and interpreters) is considered to be an expert in cross-cultural communication and his bicultural competence or intercultural and cross-cultural competence (as "the ability to develop targeted knowledge, skills and attitudes to lead to visible behavior and communication that are both effective and appropriate in intercultural interactions") [Deardorff 2006: 242]
should be well developed. Knowledge as one of constituent elements of intercultural and cross-cultural competence includes cultural self-awareness: articulating how one's own culture has shaped one's identity and world view; culture specific knowledge: analyzing and explaining basic information about other cultures (history, values, politics, economics, communication styles, values, beliefs and practices); sociolinguistic awareness: acquiring basic local language skills, articulating differences in verbal/ non-verbal communication and adjusting one's speech to accommodate nationals from other cultures; grasp of global issues and trends: explaining the meaning and implications of globalization and relating local issues to global forces.
To enable students to develop an adequate bicultural competence, translator training must emphasize different roles involved in the translation process. The translator thus deals with (at least) two persons from different cultures that have preconceived ideas about each other, ideas which, in general, are not 'adequate' in so far as they do not correspond to the respective foreign culture's 'self-image'.
To achieve a better understanding between cultures translators must, then, take into account all three levels of communication and pay more attention to the interaction level than it has received so far, in order to avoid culture-specific projection as far as possible. In other words, they should strive to transmit an image of the source culture to the target receptors that corresponds to the image the source culture would claim for itself.
That's why it is necessary to elaborate on the relationship between translation and adaptation from a functional point of view in order to show that a strict delimitation of translation proper as against adaptation does not lead us anywhere neither in the practice nor in the teaching of professional translation.
Functional translation theory
The framework of a functional approach would therefore allow any transfer procedure which leads to a functional target text, that is, cultural adaptation, paraphrase, expansion, reduction, modulation, transposition, substitution, loanword, calque, literal translation or even omission [Hermans 1991: 55-170].
Functional translation theory distinguishes between paraculture, the culture of a society as a whole, diaculture, namely subgroups within a social community, and idioculture, which is individual. The definition of culture refers to a dynamic concept.
In intercultural and cross-cultural communication the problem becomes more complex. People who do not have previous knowledge of the foreign culture tend to project their own cultural frame of reference onto the foreign culture. That is, they interpret and evaluate foreign behavior in accordance with their own cultural rules of conduct, and act according to the behavior patterns of their own culture [Bochner 2003; Furnham, Bochner 1986].
Witte writes that the translator thus deals with at least two persons from different cultures. He must be able to judge or estimate the clients' 'knowledge' or 'lack of knowledge' of another's culture and to anticipate the impact this knowledge may have on behavior patterns in the concrete cross-cultural situation. Translation and interpreting are to establish intercultural and cross-cultural communication professionally and translation action must be based on professional concepts [Traducere navem... 1993].
Equivalence and adaptation
The concept of 'translation proper' hinges on equivalence, and equivalence was introduced into translation studies parting from the standpoint of linguistics in the early sixties by Nida [Nida 1964] and Catford [Catford 1965] in the English-speaking area, and adopted, later on, as 'Äquivalenz' by Kade [Kade, 1968].
According to one of the approaches to describing equivalence it is stated that in order to be 'equivalent' to the source text, a target text has to fulfill various requirements with respect to each level of textuality. An equivalent target text: has to have the same function or communicative effect as the source text, has to imitate or 'mirror' the stylistic features of the source text, has to convey the same 'meaning' or 'message' as the source text. Non-equivalence may be at different levels. Some common problems of non-equivalence at word level are caused by culture-specific concepts, exoticism. Difficulties are encountered by translators as a result of differences in the lexical patterning of the SL and TL (collocation, idioms and fixed expressions).
Some collocation translation problems may be caused by: the engrossing effect of source text patterning, misinterpreting the meaning of a SL collocation, the tension between accuracy and naturalness, culture-specific collocations, marked collocations in the ST. Any given lexical item will tend to occur in a language with a particular range of other lexical items. Larson [Larson 1998] gives as example "having" or "suffering" trouble, which in other languages might be given as "seeing" or "drinking" trouble. The meaning is the same but different words are combined to indicate that meaning. Each word has different collocational possibilities and the collocational range of equivalent words between languages will not be identical, especially in the secondary meanings. In Amuzgo (Mexico) one of the two words for "love" collocates only with higher to lower status (e.g. man to wife) and the other with lower to higher status (e.g. child to parent).
Techniques and strategies of translation
Translators often find it difficult to render the appropriate meaning. They use various strategies and techniques which can "entail different communicative effects" [Nord 2003: 82-196] for the readers. Nord lists the most frequent ones: non-translation; non-translation that leads to a different pronunciation in the target language; transcription or transliteration from non-Latin alphabets; morphological adaptation to the target language; cultural adaptation; substitution.
In order to cope with all difficulties of translation it is necessary to take into consideration the following cultural issues:
cultural transposition as the replacement in a TT of SL-specific features with TL-specific ones; cultural transposition implies a certain degree of TL orientation;
transliteration as the use of TL orthographic conventions for the written representation of SL expressions;
cultural transplantation as the highest degree of cultural transposition, involving the replacement of source-cultural details mentioned in the ST with cultural details drawn from the target culture in the TT-that is, cultural transplantation deletes from the TT items specific to the source culture, replacing them with items specific to the target culture;
compromise that should be the result of deliberate decisions taken in the light of all the factors that can play a determining role in translation: the nature of the ST, its relationship to SL audience, the purpose of the TT, its audience, etc.;
compensation as the technique of making up for the translation loss of important ST features, making up for ST effects achieved by one means through using other means in the TT;
compensation in kind as compensating for a particular type of textual effect in the ST by using a textual effect of a different type in the TT;
compensation by merging as condensing the features carried over a relatively longer stretch of the ST into a relatively shorter stretch of TT;
compensation in place as compensating for the loss of a particular textual effect occurring at a given place in the ST by creating a corresponding effect at a different place in the TT;
compensation by splitting as distributing the features carried in a relatively shorter stretch of the ST over a relatively longer stretch of the TT.
The following techniques and strategies can be used if the words, expressions cannot be directly translated due to some cross-cultural differences: to retain the original word, in inverted commas; to retain the original expression, with a literal explanation in brackets; to use a close equivalent; to use a non-idiomatic or plain prose translation; to use an idiom of similar meaning and form; to use an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form; to translate by paraphrase; to translate by omission. Strategies used by professional translators to cope with the problems of non-equivalence at word level also due to some cross-cultural differences: translation by a more general word (superordinate); translation by a more neutral/less expressive word; translation by cultural substitution; translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation; translation by paraphrase using a related word; translation by paraphrase using unrelated words; translation by omission; translation by illustration.
Specific cultural domains
In order to discuss the problems of translation and illustrate them using examples it is necessary to support the point of view that the way in which a particular language organizes experience for its speakers can be seen most clearly by examination of a specific cultural domain, such as the organization and classification of the world of animals, the world of plants, the system of colors, or the realm of relatives or kinsmen. This knowledge is critical for a professional translator. Some more examples: a rafter of turkeys, a gaggle of geese, a bevy of quails, a fall of woodcocks, a covey of grouse, a watch of nightingales, a pack/a route of wolves, a pride of lions, a trip of goats, a herd of elephants, a flock of sheep, a gang of buffalo etc.
In all languages, there is a set of terms used to refer to animals. The world of animals is separable from other domains in the world. It is distinct from the domain of plants, though they both share the characteristic of life in contrast to the inanimate world of rocks and soils. People using different languages will sort this world of animals in ways different from our own. For example, the Linnaean system of classification, which we use, groups human beings, bats, and whales as mammals on the basis of criteria such as being warm-blooded, suckling their young, and having hair. Whether these animals fly, live on the land, or swim in the sea is not important.
Besides, societies over the world use kinship terms to sort their relatives into different categories. In every kinship terminology each kin term represents several different kinds of relatives. For example, the English term uncle is a category that includes mother's brother, father's brother, and mother's sister's husband; the Yanomamo term hay a is a category that includes father and father's brother, and so on.
Another cultural domain is the set of linguistic terms used for colors. Every language has a set of terms for colors, though the number of these terms varies from one language to another. In some languages, there are only two basic color terms, bright and dark. More common are languages with three terms, and those terms will always be red, bright (white), and dark (black). Still other languages, with four color categories, add either yellow or green. Other groups of languages through time will successively add blue, brown, purple, pink, orange, and gray. What Berlin and Kay [Brent, Kay 1969] have demonstrated is that the color spectrum is not randomly divided. There is order and regularity in the way in which languages add to the number of color terms. This does not mean that people over the world who lack terms for particular colors cannot in a descriptive fashion express in their language the colors they see. It does mean that the color categories their language possesses organize their experience in a particular way.
Some other examples illustrating translation problems caused by cultural differences are given below.
* In Japanese, the words for «it's beautiful» are kirei dawa if the speaker is a woman and kirei dana if the speaker is a man. For the most part, women and men use the same nouns, but the verbs have different conjugations. The resulting difference is one of tone rather than of meaning. Japanese male language sounds 'stronger, less refined, more direct [Larson 1998].
Within the United States culture, Japanese-American and Chinese-American males use more intensive language than female counterparts. And differences such as these are not restricted to the United States. The argument that women and men live in separate cultures is supported by other work done by anthropologists who have shown that women share some common communication behaviors across cultures.
* Differences in culture result in situations in which a concept in one language is unknown in the receptor language and no lexical equivalents exist to convey it. This may be due to differences in climate, customs, beliefs or worldviews. When the concept is a key concept in the information the problem becomes even more critical. In searching for approximate equivalents Larson [Ibid.] points out that it is important to distinguish between form and function. An equivalent may be of different form (e.g. pen vs. quill) but have the same function (e.g. writing) or be of similar form (e.g. dog) but have different functions (e.g. pet vs. hunting dog). Further difficulty exists when the information makes important distinctions between concepts for which even the generic equivalent is unknown in the receptor language. Larson [Ibid.] gives the example of distinctions having to be made between church, mosque and synagogue when the generic equivalent "shelter used for religious purposes" may have little meaning in the receptor culture. The situation is further complicated when the key word also carries a symbolic meaning.
Some examples of concepts that can be translated if a translator knows target culture.
Relations between groups through marriage. In English society, for example, marriage is based upon the decision by the bride and groom to get married. However, in other societies there are rules stating that one should marry a certain category of relative. These rules have the effect of continuing alliance over time between the groups. This marriage pattern is referred to as a system of direct reciprocal exchange.
Age grades. Every society has terms for different age groups, but the number of terms varies. In English society, they use such terms as infant, child, adolescent, adult, and senior citizen.
Production, Distribution, and Consumption. How people utilize their labor, how they work the land, how they use water resources, and which crops they grow are the factors to be considered in an examination of different economic systems based on agriculture. Throughout lowland South America and Melanesia, the mode of production is based upon crops that are grown through vegetative propagation, using a part of the plant itself, rather than through the planting of seeds. Since these crops are grown in gardens, this form of cultivation is known as horticulture.
There is a presumption that when words are translated, meaning is also translated. However, words may often be imbued with meanings and nuances that cannot be adequately conveyed when translated. For example, 'company' is translated as 'kaisha' in Japanese, but there is a tremendous difference in the meaning of the two words. A 'company' refers to a body of assets that are bought, sold, or otherwise managed to yield profits (typically short-term profits) for the benefit of shareholders. In short, a company is a shareholder-oriented management of assets. A 'kaisha' refers to an organization that is imbued with values and with relationships with suppliers, employees, subcontractors, banks, financial institutions and insurance companies. A 'kaisha' is managed so as to ensure the harmonious maintenance of all these relationships over the long term.
Conclusions
Thus, in order to become a professional translator it is necessary to study other cultures and regard this 'never-ending' endeavor of approaching foreign cultures as an integral part of one's future profession. Eugene Nida has noted that "language is a part of culture, and in fact, it is the most complex set of habits that any culture exhibits. Language reflects the culture, provides access to the culture, and in many respects constitutes a model of the culture through its taxonomic hierarchies of words representing tokens and types on every level from viruses to galaxies" [Nida, el. r.].
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