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UDK 004.02:004.5:004.9
Ergasheva N.K.
Senior teacher
Department of foreign languages in natural sciences
Faculty of foreign languages Ferghana State University Ferghana, Republic of Uzbekistan
LINGUISTICS AND LINGUISTIC DISCIPLINES
Abstract: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It involves the analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Linguists traditionally analyze human language by observing interplay between sound and meaning. Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical, and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic and language-based context is often determined. The following article looks into the different linguistic disciplines.
Key words: linguistics, phonology, phonetics, morphology, pragmatics, semantics.
INTRODUCTION
The earliest activities in the documentation and description of language have been attributed to the 6th-century-BC Indian grammarian Panini who wrote a formal description of the Sanskrit language in his Astâdhyayï. The areas of study include the disciplines of semiotics (the study of direct and indirect language through signs and symbols), literary criticism (the historical and ideological analysis of literature, cinema, art, or published material), translation (the conversion and documentation of meaning in written/spoken text from one language or dialect onto another), and speech-language pathology (a corrective method to cure phonetic disabilities and dysfunction's at the cognitive level).
Linguistics is often called "the science of language," the study of the human capacity to communicate and organize thought using different tools (the vocal tract for spoken languages, hands for sign languages, etc.) and involving different abstract and tactile components.
Linguistics looks at:
The general phenomenon of human language. Different families of languages (example: Germanic, including English, German, Dutch and Scandinavian, among others). Specific languages (example: Arabic, Mandarin and French). Communicative codes or behaviors that are not so well defined (example: the language of recent immigrants, the ways by which bilinguals choose one or another language in certain settings). Linguistics is a human science—in fact, one of the foundational disciplines in the western intellectual tradition—and may be compared with programs such as sociology, psychology or
anthropology. As with all human sciences, there are several sub-fields in linguistics:
Phonetics (the study of how speech sounds are made) Phonology (how these sounds are organized) Morphology (how sounds are organized into units of meaning) Pragmatics (the relationship between language signs and language users) Semantics (the study of meanings themselves)
Sociolinguistics (the interaction of language and people or collectives) Syntax (how units of meaning come together to create utterances) Because of its inherently cross-disciplinary nature, linguistics and linguists is often integrated into such disciplines as communications, sociology, history, literature, foreign languages, pedagogy and psychology. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Syntax and morphology are branches of linguistics concerned with the order and structure of meaningful linguistic units such as words and morphemes. Syntacticians study the rules and constraints that govern how speakers of a language can organize words into sentences. Morphologists study similar rules for the order of morphemes—sub-word units such as prefixes and suffixes—and how they may be combined to form words. While words, along with critics, are generally accepted as being the smallest units of syntax, in most languages, if not all, many words can be related to other words by rules that collectively describe the grammar for that language. For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog and dogs are closely related, differentiated only by the plurality morpheme "-s", only found bound to noun phrases. Speakers of English, a fluxional language, recognize these relations from their innate knowledge of English's rules of word formation. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; and, in similar fashion, dog is to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher. By contrast, Classical Chinese has very little morphology, using almost exclusively unbound morphemes ("free" morphemes) and depending on word order to convey meaning. (Most words in modern Standard Chinese ["Mandarin"], however, are compounds and most roots are bound.) These are understood as grammars that represent the morphology of the language. The rules understood by a speaker reflect specific patterns or regularities in the way words are formed from smaller units in the language they are using, and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.
Phonological and orthographic modifications between a base word and its origin may be partial to literacy skills. Studies have indicated that the presence of modification in phonology and orthography makes morphologically complex words harder to understand and that the absence of modification between a base word and its origin makes morphologically complex words easier to understand.
Morphologically complex words are easier to comprehend when they include a base word.
Languages, such as Chukchi, have words composed of many morphemes. The Chukchi word "tsmeygslevtpsytsrkgn", for example, meaning "I have a fierce headache", is composed of eight morphemes t-s-meyg-s-lev+t-psyt-s-rkgn that may be glossed. The morphology of such languages allows for each consonant and vowel to be understood as morphemes, while the grammar of the language indicates the usage and understanding of each morpheme. The discipline that deals specifically with the sound changes occurring within morphemes is morph phonology.
Semantics and pragmatics.
Semantics and pragmatics are branches of linguistics concerned with meaning. These subfields have traditionally been divided by the role of linguistic and social context in the determination of meaning. Semantics in this conception is concerned with core meanings and pragmatics concerned with meaning in context. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicate, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology. Unlike semantics, which examines meaning that is conventional or "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and listener but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. In that respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity since meaning relies on the manner, place, time, etc. of an utterance.
DISCUSSIONS AND RESULTS
Phonetics and phonology
Phonetics and phonology are branches of linguistics concerned with sounds (or the equivalent aspects of sign languages). Phonetics is largely concerned with the physical aspects of sounds such as their acoustics, production, and perception. Phonology is concerned with the linguistic abstractions and categorizations of sounds.
Languages exist on a wide continuum of conventionalization with blurry divisions between concepts such as dialects and languages. Languages can undergo internal changes which lead to the development of sub varieties such as linguistic registers, accents, and dialects. Similarly, languages can undergo changes caused by contact with speakers of other languages, and new language varieties may be born from these contact situations through the process of language genesis.
CONCLUSION
Not all language contact situations result in the development of a pidgin or creole, and researchers have studied the features of contact situations that make contact varieties more likely to develop. Often these varieties arise in situations
of colonization and enslavement, where power imbalances prevent the contact groups from learning the other's language but sustained contact is nevertheless maintained. The subjugated language in the power relationship is the substrate language, while the dominant language serves as the superstreet. Often the words and lexicon of a contact variety come from the superstreet, making it the deifier, while grammatical structures come from the substrate, but this is not always the case.
Reference:
[1].Halliday, Michael A.K.; Jonathan Webster (2006). On Language and Linguistics. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. vii. ISBN 978-0-82648824-4.
[2].Martinet, André (1960). Elements of General Linguistics. Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. Translated by Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert. London: Faber. p. 15. Jakobson, Roman (1937). Six Lectures on Sound and Meaning. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ISBN 978-0-262-60010-1.
