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Д. Н. УШАКОВ И ФОРТУНАТОВСКИЕ ТРАДИЦИИ В ЛИНГВИСТИКЕ XX-XXI вв.
УДК 811.1б1.1'374.3(Ушаков Д. Н.). DOI: 10.26170/2071-2405-2023-28-4-288-297. ББК Ш141.12-420.
ГРНТИ 16.21.47. Код ВАК 5.9.5
LINGUISTIC TERMINOLOGY IN D. N. USHAKOV'S DICTIONARY AS THE REFLECTION OF FORTUNATOV SCHOOL IN LINGUISTICS
Oxana A. Voloshina
MSU-BIT University (Shenzhen, China) ORCID ID: https://0rcid.0rg/0009-0004-1359-5987
Abstract. The article discusses linguistic terms included in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D. N. Ushakov (1935-1940). The analysis of definitions of terms in the context of specialized dictionaries of linguistic terminology of the first half of the 20th century (dictionaries by N. N. Durnovo, E. D. Polivanov, etc.) allows us to speak about the reflection in the Ushakov Dictionary of the conceptual and terminological system of Moscow the formal (Fortunatov) School in linguistics. The change of the scientific paradigm in the Russian linguistics of the first third of the 20th century is reflected in the system of terms - the basic concepts of a certain direction in science. Thus, N. N. Durnovo's Dictionary represents the concepts of the Moscow formal school based on F. F. Fortunato^s theory, and E. D. Polivanov's Dictionary represents the structural phonology of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, in addition, R. O. Shor's project to create a Linguistic encyclopedia demonstrates the emergence of a new direction of Soviet linguistics - the "Marxist science of language". The comparison of the list of terms contained in the Index to the Brief Introduction to the Science of Language by D. N. Ushakov (1925) and some basic terms included in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D.N. Ushakov shows a change in the list of terms, their meanings, the role of each term in scientific theory, which allows us to talk about transformation of the theoretical platform of the formal School of Russian linguistics.
Keywords: D. N. Ushakov; explanatory dictionary; conceptual and terminological system, the formal linguistic school
For citation: Voloshina, O. F. (2023). Linguistic Terminology in D. N. Ushakov's Dictionary as the Reflection of Fortunatov School in Linguistics. In Philological Class. Vol. 28. No. 4, pp. 288-297. DOI: 10.26170/20712405-2023-28-4-288-297.
ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКАЯ ТЕРМИНОЛОГИЯ В СЛОВАРЕ Д. Н. УШАКОВА КАК ОТРАЖЕНИЕ ФОРТУНАТОВСКОЙ ШКОЛЫ В ЯЗЫКОЗНАНИИ
Волошина О. А.
Совместный университет МГУ-ППИ (Шэньчжэнь, Китай) ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1359-5987
Аннотация. В статье рассматриваются основные лингвистические термины, вошедшие в «Толковый словарь русского языка» под редакцией Д. Н. Ушакова (1935-1940 гг.). Анализ дефиниций терминов в контексте специализированных словарей лингвистической терминологии первой трети XX в. (словари Н. Н. Дурново и Е. Д. Поливанова и др.) позволяет говорить об отражении в «Ушаковском словаре» понятийно-терминологической системы московской формальной (Фортунатовской) школы в языкознании. Смена
© Волошина О. А., 2023
научной парадигмы в отечественной науке о языке первой трети XX века репрезентируется в системе терминов - базовых понятий лингвистики. Так, Словарь Н. Н. Дурново определяет понятия Московской формальной школы, опирающейся на учение Ф. Ф. Фортунатова, а Словарь Е. Д. Поливанова - структурную фонологию И. А. Бодуэна де Куртенэ, кроме того, проект Р.О. Шор по созданию «Лингвистической энциклопедии» демонстрирует появление нового направления советской лингвистики - «марксистской науки о языке».
Сопоставление списка терминов, содержащихся в Указателе к «Краткому введению в науку о языке» Д. Н. Ушакова (1925) и некоторых базовых терминов, вошедших в «Толковый словарь русского языка» под ред. Д. Н. Ушакова показывает изменение списка терминов, их значений, роль каждого термина в научной теории, что позволяет говорить о преобразовании теоретической платформы формальной школы отечественной лингвистики в первой половине XX века.
Ключевые слова : Д. Н. Ушаков; толковый словарь; понятийно-терминологическая система; формальная лингвистическая школа
Для цитирования : Волошина, О. А. Лингвистическая терминология в Словаре Д. Н. Ушакова как отражение Фортунатовской школы в языкознании / О. А. Волошина. - Текст : непосредственный // Филологический класс. - 2023. - Т. 28, № 4. - С. 288-297. - DOI: 10.26170/2071-2405-2023-28-4-288-297.
Introduction
This article examines the linguistic terms documented in Tolkovyi slovar' russkogo yazyka (the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language") edited by D. N. Ushakov against the background of specialized dictionaries of linguistic terms - dictionaries by N. N. Durnovo and E. D. Polivanov. A comparative analysis of the basic linguistic terms recorded in D. N. Ushakov's "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" with the terms selected and described in D. N. Ushakov's "Brief Introduction to the Science of Language" (1925), their definitions and contextual uses allows not only to demonstrate the theoretical platform of the formal school of linguistics through the prism of the selected terms but also to show the dynamics of the conceptual and terminological base of the most formal Fortunatov school in the Russian science of language [Алпатов 2012].
D. N. Ushakov's broad scientific pursuits are well-documented - Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov engaged extensively in the fields of history and theory of the Russian language, orthography and orthoepy, dialectology and methodologies for teaching Russian. However, within Russian linguistics, his name is primarily associated with the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" (1935-1940). An amusing anecdote recounts an incident where a schoolchild, upon seeing Dmitry Nikolaevich on the street, remarked to the other 'Look, Ushakov is coming!' to which the other retorted 'What are you saying! Ushakov is a dictionary' [Крысин 1984: 286].
Contemporaries and followers of the scientist discussed an innovative approach towards creating a new type of explanatory dictionary: the criteria for word selection, methods for defining word meanings and more. D. N. Ushakov aimed to capture the vocabulary that emerged in the early 20th century, thereby ensuring that the dictionary reflected the life of Soviet society in the I920s-I930s, encapsulating numerous political, social and cultural changes. Any dictionary represents a particular 'worldview' shaped by the compiler's perspective. As such, it is unsurprising that the explanatory dictionary, crafted by a linguistic scholar - not merely a lexicographer and lexicologist but also a theorist steadfast in following the Fortunatov school of linguistics -explained the meanings of linguistic terms.
As the system of terms reflects the theoretical positions of a particular scientific school and even scientific trends, exploring the linguistic terminology included in D. N. Ushakov's Dictionary, which was meticulously defined within the dictionary entries, aids in identifying the fundamental concepts of the formal Fortunatov school, a movement staunchly supported by D. N. Ushakov. Of course, the works of the school's founder, Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov, alongside those of numerous followers and students, offer insights into reconstructing the theoretical underpinnings of the formal school. However, it is the conscious selection of terms, their systematic description and the perspective showcased in the dictionary that signifies a distinct approach by supporters of the formal
school towards presenting and explaining language.
The early 20th century witnessed a rapid shift in the scientific paradigm - from the groundwork laid by comparative historical Indo-European linguistics emerged a new structural linguistics, accommodating a spectrum of diverse, sometimes conflicting approaches to explaining language structure. Variations in language description and the formulation of scientific research methodologies were embodied in several dictionaries of linguistic terms that appeared almost simultaneously, the analysis of which serves as a reflection of the evolution of linguistics in the first third of the 20th century.
The linguistic terminology used in D. N. Ushakov's Dictionary vividly showcases the author's dedication to the Fortunatov school, set against the backdrop of specialised dictionaries of linguistic terms: N. N. Durnovo's "Grammatical Dictionary" (1924) (Grammatich-eskii slovar' (grammaticheskie i lingvisticheskie terminy)), the unpublished "Dictionary of Linguistic and Literary Terms" by E. D. Polivanov (Slovar' lingvisticheskikh i literaturovedcheskikh terminov), a student and follower of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay (1935-1938, published in archives in 1991), and the unpublished project on the organization of the publication of the Linguistic Encyclopedia (Memorandum) by R. P. Shor (early 1930s).
N. N. Durnovo's "Grammatical Dictionary" (1924) (Grammaticheskii slovar')
N. N. Durnovo's "Grammatical Dictionary (Grammatical and Linguistic Terms)" (Grammaticheskii slovar' (grammaticheskie i lingvisticheskie terminy)) provides an insight into the concept of the formal Fortunatov school. Here, the dictionary contrasts grammatical terms (representing the formal school) with all other 'linguistic' terms, highlighting the pivotal role of grammar (morphology and syntax) in laying the groundwork for a new formal language description.
The dictionary notably reflects terms like 'grammatical form' (forma grammaticheskaya), 'formal grammar' (formal'naya grammatika), formal school' (formal'naya shkola) and formal meaning' (formal'noe znachenie) [Дурново 1924: 133-138]. This selection highlights that the foundation upon which the entire structure of the formal school stands is the term form' (grammatical). The author, when defining this
fundamental term for the school, refers to F. F. Fortunatov, who perceives the grammatical form of individual words as 'the ability of individual words to distinguish themselves for speakers consciousness in terms of formal and foundational word belonging' (formal'nuyu i osnovnuyu prinadlezhnost' slova) [Дурново 1924: 134]. This differentiation of formal indicators is based on the recurrence of elements carrying specific meanings: the lexical meaning of the root (base) and the grammatical meaning of inflection - like 'kot-u', 'kot-ik-u', 'kot-ik-om'; 'dom-u', 'dom-ik-u', 'dom-ik-om' and so forth.
Within the concept of grammatical form, grammar is defined as 'the study of language forms' [Дурново 1924: 137], 'related to sound expressions of relationships between expressed word concepts' [Дурново 1924: 32]. Accordingly, it is divided into morphology - 'the study of individual word forms' [Дурново 1924: 64] - and syntax, described as 'a grammatical branch encompassing phrase forms' [Дурново 1924: 101]. Understanding grammatical form underpins language structure description: 'individual word forms are classified, based on their relationships, into inflectional forms (formy slovoizmeneniya) and word formation forms (formy slovoobrazovaniya)' [Дурново 1924: 135].
The concept of form serves as the foundation for Fortunatov's classification of parts of speech, a framework followed by N. N. Durno-vo: 'Conventionally, parts of speech in grammars denote word classes (chasti rechi) distinguished by a wide array of signs, not solely grammatical but also non-grammatical. Nevertheless, the main principle underpinning word division into parts of speech remains grammatical' [Дурново 1924: 139]. Durnovo notes that traditional grammar also distinguishes pronouns and numerals - word classes not unified by a common grammatical meaning (comp. [Волошина 20216; 2022]).
The conflation of grammatical and non-grammatical features, forming the basis for distinguishing parts of speech, prompts the necessity to formulate the concept of a grammatical class of words, comprising words 'unified by common grammatical features' [Дурново 1924: 39]. N. N. Durnovo specifies that 'strictly speaking, only the grammatical category of conjugates is termed a verb in words' (glagol - kate-goriya spryagaemyh slov) [Дурново 1924: 28]. Additionally, 'noun - in grammar - is an inflected word, varying in cases' (imya v grammatike -sklonyaemoe slovo) [Дурново 1924: 49] or an adjective - 'a word featuring gender, number and
case agreement forms, signifying an attribute of the noun it agrees with' (prilagatel'noe - slovo, imeyushchee formy soglasovaniya v rode, chisle i padezhe) [Дурново 1924: 91].
Thus, the main terms forming the foundation of linguistic theory in N. N. Durnovo's Dictionary indeed belong to the grammatical category. However, the dictionary also includes 'linguistic' terms (as implied by its name), such as phonetic terms, terms related to comparative historical linguistics (kinship of languages, proto-language, phonetic law, etc.) (rodstvo yazykov, prayazyk, foneticheskij za-kon) and others.
Specifically, N. N. Durnovo's Dictionary contains numerous phonetic terms that name speech sound categories (sometimes providing synonymous terms like sibilant, fricative, spirant and flowing consonants (shipyashchie, fri-kativnye, spiranty i protochnye soglasnye)), terms related to phonetic processes and pro-sodic means (stress and intonation (udarenie i intonaciya)) and more. Phonetics is examined within the prevailing historical approach in linguistics at that time. Notably, Durnovo provides the following definition: "Phonetics is the study of the sound composition of individual languages and the phonetic changes of sounds in the history of these languages" [Дурново 1924: 121].
The Dictionary also includes terms associated with emerging trends in the field of phonetics, including experimental phonetics. Notably, the author does not overlook a term of significance for followers of Baudouin de Courtenay, but, like other representatives of the Fortunato school, rejects the term, describing it as 'the psychic equivalent of sound' (ek-sperimental'naya fonetika). Clearly, the emphasis in the dictionary lies on terms defining the Fortunato formal school, while concepts from other scientists, undoubtedly familiar to the author, are only presented in fragments and often criticized (comp. [Богатырева 2012]).
"Dictionary of Linguistic and Literary Terms" by E. D. Polivanov (1935-1938) (Slovaf lingvisticheskikh i literaturovedcheskikh terminov)
The St. Petersburg (Leningrad) branch of Russian linguistics, rooted in the science of language founded by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay and continued by his students, including representatives of the Kazan school like L. V. Shcherba, E. D. Polivanov, etc., operated
on fundamentally different theoretical principles and language research methods. These principles are evident in E. D. Polivanov's "Dictionary of Linguistic and Literary Terms". The analysis of the dictionary reveals the author's effort to construct a clear conceptual and terminological system for the new science, with minimal inclusion of terms reflecting classical comparative historical linguistics concepts. Instead, Polivanov predominantly relies on the most advanced field of modern linguistics - phonetics. Alongside phonetic terms, the dictionary fully captures the idea of the phoneme as formulated by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay [Волошина 2021а].
While the term 'phoneme' (fonema) does not have a separate entry in the dictionary, Polivanov's views on phonemes are expressed in the article 'Psychophonetics' (psikhofonetika) (what he calls 'phonology after Baudouin).
"Psychophonetics - this word was used mainly by its creator himself, and along with it the founder of psychophonetics (as a special department and direction of linguistics), the late I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, as well as some of his students; comes from a combination of the Greek basis фих^ (soul; in a compositional form - psycho-) and the term phonetics (see). Unlike anthropophonics (see), i.e. the part of phonetics that refers to the physiological and physical composition of human pronouncing activity, psychophonetics considers the sounds of a language from the point of view of their functional (symbolic) use in a given language (for semantic differentiation) and, thus, does not base the phonetic description of a language on physiological and physical (=acoustic) temporary facts, but a system of constantly existing representations of differentiable sounds of a language (or elements of a phonetic system), which are called phonemes by Baudouin de Courtenay" [Поливанов 1991: 414].
Following Baudouin de Courtenay, Poli-vanov distinguishes anthropophonics (the science of articulatory and acoustic characteristics of sounds) and psychophonetics (= phonology, the science of the semantic function of the sound unit - phoneme). The semantic distinguishing function is based on differential (phonological) signs of sounds, such as the hardness and softness of consonant sounds in Russian: 'kon - kon'. Articulatory and acoustic differences that do not perform a semantic
distinguishing function, like the consonant [g] explosive and [y] fricative in Russian, are not considered different phonemes since they do not differentiate meaning in words like [god] and [yod].
Polivanov presents his own version of unifying linguistic terminology, solving the problem posed by Baudouin de Courtenay, who saw the reflection of a strict scientific theory in the system of clearly formulated concepts. Polivanov not only provides definitions for individual terms but also offers a series of structurally and semantically related nominations for special concepts. For instance, he writes about the term 'phoneme' as "a term from the "psychophonetic" terminology of the Russian-Polish scientist, the late Professor I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay (- among other terms created or proposed by him: phoneme - kinema -akusma - kinakema - morpheme - grapheme -syntagma (fonema - kinema - akusma -kinakema - morfema - grafema - sintagma), which are now accepted and introduced into international use by the modern 'phonological' school)" [Поливанов 1991: 325].
In the effort to create a universal dictionary of linguistic terminology for the modern stage of language development, Polivanov included both new terms, like the 'new doctrine of language' (novoe uchenie ob yazyke) by academician N. Y. Marr and classical (comparative historical) linguistic terms. The Dictionary aimed not to be eclectic but rather to structurally describe language, notably unifying phonetic and grammatical terminology. This urgent task of offering a panoramic representation of linguistic concepts through a Dictionary was addressed not only by N. N. Durnovo and E. D. Polivanov but also by a project proposed by R.O. Shor in the early 1930s - an unrealized and unpublished Linguistic Encyclopedia located in the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences [Никитин 20186].
R. O. Shor believed that creating a dictionary of terms was necessary not only to revise and streamline old scientific terminology but also to describe the concepts of emerging Marxist linguistics - a radically new scientific direction. She proposed cleansing classical linguistics from erroneous idealistic ideas of bourgeois linguistics and the formalism within Russian linguistics, as presented in N. N. Durnovo's Dictionary. The creation of a new dictionary of terms was looked opon as a
solution to formulating and popularizing the principles of the Marxist doctrine of language, primarily based on the ideas of N. Y. Marr, the ideologist of the class approach to language description.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a polyphony of different directions in language knowledge was observed not only within traditional linguistics (such as comparative Indo-European linguistics or the school of formal grammar) but also in a fierce struggle between the emerging Marxist linguistics and the 'old' academic science of language [Никитин 2012]. The creation of terminological dictionaries proved particularly relevant during the shift in scientific paradigms and the emergence of new scientific directions. A comparison between linguistic terminology in D. N. Ushakov's Brief Introduction to the Science of Language and the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language under his editorship offers an idea of the dynamics within the conceptual and terminological system of Russian linguistics.
Linguistic terminology in D. N. Ushakov's "Explanatory Dictionary of Russian Language" (Tolkovyi slovar' russkogo yazyka)
Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov, the compiler of the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language in the first third of the 20th century, did not produce a specialized dictionary of linguistic terminology1. However, as a theoretical linguist, he was interested in clarifying fundamental terms in the science of language, thus including specialized vocabulary on linguistics in his Dictionary. Ushakov, a supporter of the Fortunatov school, adhered to the conceptual framework of the formal school, aligning his dictionary's definitions of linguistic terms with their understanding reflected in N. N. Durnovo's Dictionary.
D. N. Ushakov's affiliation with the Fortu-natov school of Russian linguistics is prominently demonstrated in his repeatedly repub-lished work, A Brief Introduction to the Science of Language (Kratkoe vvedenie v nauku o yazyke) (1925). Ushakov echoes many key principles of
1 Although Ushakov did not create a separate dictionary of terms, some of his dictionary entries, likely intended for a textbook or encyclopedic dictionary, have been preserved in the archive. These entries, like 'Alphabet' and 'Phonetics', reflect the scientist's interest in offering definitions and detailed descriptions of linguistic terms [Никитин 2018a: 91-94].
F. F. Fortunatov's General Course of Comparative Linguistics (Obshchii kurs sravnitel'nogo yazykovedeniya). However, he aims to popularise contemporary language science achievements and present language descriptions to a wide readership.
D. N. Ushakov introduces a systematical of the linguistic sections, formulating term interpretations entirely in line with the formal school's principles: "Linguistics includes the following departments: phonetics - the doctrine of sounds; semasiology - the doctrine of the meanings of words; grammar - the doctrine of forms, divided into morphology - the doctrine of the forms of words without regard to their role in a phrase, and syntax is the teaching about the forms of words as parts of a phrase, and about the forms of the phrases themselves" [Ушаков 1925: 8-9]. The scientific text is saturated with specialised vocabulary, section names, linguistic unit descriptions, etc. It is not surprising that the essay is accompanied by an index [Ушаков 1925: 141142] - an alphabetical list of terms indicating the page number(s) where each term appears in the text.
The index contains 140 terms, including 46 phonetic terms. It notably includes numerous synonymous terms, exemplified by "other physiological terms in linguistic writings that denote various aspects of noise formation; for instance, 'gate' (vzryvnye) or 'bowed' (zat-vornye), instead of 'explosive' (smychnye) and instead of 'fricative' (frikativnye): 'slotted' (shchelinnye), 'flowing' (protochnye), 'spirants' (spiranty) or, as the translation of the latter, 'blown' (produvnye)" [Ушаков 1925: 30]. The index lists all five synonymous terms: fricative, slit, flowing, spirant and blown [Ушаков 1925: 141-142], along with other synonyms like syllable loss and haplology [Ушаков 1925: 122]; infinitive and indefinite mood [Ушаков 1925: 88]; descriptive and static study [Ушаков 1925: 9] and more.
A set of grammatical terms, like N. N. Durnovo's Dictionary, reflects the formal school's foundation: grammar, grammatical classes (though lacking the term non-grammatical classes, the main non-grammatical classes - subjects and signs - are mentioned [Ушаков 1925: 141]), parts of speech, morphology, syntax, syntactic forms, verb, verb word, grammatical and non-grammatical adverbs, inflection, word
formation, root, etc. Interestingly, the index omits terms like affix', suffix, prefix, yet includes root ("a base that does not decompose into a base + affix is called a non-derivative base, or root' [Ушаков 1925: 71]) and prefix ("affix is a common name for any formal affiliation that is in the word, a separate part, and means, in fact, 'prefix' (pristavka). Affixes are divided into suffixes ('pod-stavka') attached to the base from behind, prefixes ('predstavka') attached to it from the front and infixes Cvstavka') inserted inside the base" [Ушаков 1925: 74]). The index features terms like living suffix and dead suffix: "formal accessories can arise in a language and can die out, and we can talk, for example, about living and dead suffixes" [Ушаков 1925: 138], as well as inflection of the bases (fleksiya osnov) ("such a sound change in the base that the speaker recognises as necessary for the formation of the word form") and inflection of words (fleksiya slov) ("instead of 'inflection' (slovoizmenenie), the term inflection of words (fleksiya slov) or simply 'inflection' (fleksiya) is very common" [Ушаков 1925: 68]).
The selection of terms for the index in A brief introduction to the science of language (Kratkoe vvedenie v nauku o yazyke) illustrates Ushakov's professional interest in ordering linguistic terminology as a tool for presenting scientific theory, emphasising the scientist's adherence to the Fortunatov formal school. Consequently, numerous linguistic terms are indicated in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, compiled under D. N. Ushakov's guidance (1935-1940). To depict the cross-section of linguistics displayed in the dictionary in the first half of the 20th century, let us examine interpretations of some fundamental terms. The Dictionary encompasses various phonetic terms, including the science of sounds:
"Phonetics [from Greek phonetikos -sound] (lingv.). 1. Department of Linguistics, studying the sound structure of the language. Experimental phonetics. 2. The sound side of speech, the sound com sound composition of the language. The dialects differ from each other in phonetics. Phonetist (linguist). Linguist, specialist in phonetics" [ТСРЯ 1940 IV: 1097]. Here we also find a synonym term:
1 Whereas in the text of the essay, the author gives the definition of an affix: "A formal affiliation, which is a separate part of a word, is called an affix" [Ушаков 1925: 71].
"Phonica [from Greek phone - sound] (lingv.). The sound side, the sound composition of speech; the same as phonetics".
Defining the phonetic unit of the language system, the Dictionary states: "Sound. Articulate element of spoken speech (lingv.) The history of the sounds of the Russian language" [TCPH 1935 I: 1086]. Within the article on sound, it defines sound laws as "the laws of changes in the sounds of human speech in its history; lingv." [TCPH 1935 I: 1086]. Speech sounds are explored not only in historical phonetics (formulating the concept of sound laws) but also from the perspective of segmenting the speech stream into articulate units.
The Dictionary characterises sounds, including vowels and consonants: "Vowel (lingv.). 1. About the sounds of speech: formed with less participation of noises in the oral cavity than a consonantal sound (cf. consonant). Vowel sounds of the Russian language" [TCPH 1935 I: 569]. It defines "Consonant (lingv.) 1. Produced by noise resulting from the friction of air in a very narrow duct between the organs of speech or from an explosion when tightly closed organs of speech open (about the sounds of human speech). Consonant sounds" [TCPH 1940 IV: 349]. These definitions emphasise the primary distinguishing features of vowels and consonants - the absence and presence of an obstacle, noting the obstacle type, allowing for classification of consonants based on their formation method. In addition to phonetic terms, the dictionary also presents phonological terminology, since phonology had become a rapidly developing area of structural linguistics at the time of compiling the dictionary. The central concept, the phoneme1, is defined as: "Phoneme [from Greek phonema - voice, sound]. The sound of speech, considered as a sound sign of the language system, which helps to distinguish the meanings of words and their grammatical parts (lingv.)... The phonemic composition of the language" [TCPH 1940 IV: 1097].
Thus, alongside proper phonetic and prosodic terms, the Dictionary contains terms embodying a new phonological theory. If N. N. Durnovo's Dictionary portrayed the
1 "Phonology [from Greek phone - sound and logos - teaching] (lingv.). Department of Linguistics, studying the phoneme system of the language and their changes" [TCPH 1940 IV: 1097].
phoneme as a mental equivalent of sound, fundamentally inapplicable to the realm of articulatory and acoustic phonetics, Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary delivers a precise definition of the term phoneme (a sound sign within the language system performing a semantic function).
The definitions of basic linguistic terms in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language have undergone modifications compared to those in A brief introduction to the science of language (1925). For instance, grammar [Greek grammatike] is no longer defined as the science of language forms but as "the doctrine of the structure of a language or a group of languages (lingv.)" [TCPH 1935 I: 614]. Morphology '[from Greek morphe - form and logos - teaching] (linguistics)' is defined as "the department of linguistics that studies the forms of words (linguistics). Morphology of the Russian language || A set of forms of words of some language (lingv.). The Bulgarian language differs greatly in its morphology from other Slavic languages" [TCPH 1938 II: 263]. However, syntax [Greek syntaxis -compilation] (linguistics) is understood as "a department of grammar that studies sentences and phrases" [TCPH 1940 IV: 188], encompassing not only phrases but also sentences for syntactic description.
The Dictionary gives importance to the names of various types of morphemes: 'morpheme' - "[from Greek morphe - form] (lingv.). The significant part of the word: root, prefix, or suffix" [TCPH 1938 II: 263]. The root is identified as the main part of a word without prefixes and suffixes (gram.). The root of the word "izvozchik" is "voz" [TCPH 1935 I: 1150]. Ushakov finds it challenging to define the root, emphasising its dominant position among other morphemes and the formal procedure of isolating it by removing affixes. Furthermore, Ushakov uses the term 'part of the word' rather than 'morpheme' when defining the root, prefix, suffix and inflection.
In defining the suffix and prefix, Ushakov emphasises the linear arrangement of affixes in relation to the root: "The prefix (pristavka) is an integral part of the word standing in front of the root; the same as the prefix (gram.). In the word 'perekhod', the prefix is 'pere'" [TCPH 1939 III: 854]. The suffix is determined by its position relative to the root and inflection and its specific word-forming significance: "suffix [from Latin suffixus - substituted] (lingual).
A word-forming element, a part of a word located between the root and the ending (inflection), giving a specific meaning to the word compared to other words of the same root, for example, its or ov in the words stolitsa, stolovyi. || In some linguistic writings (distinguishing between word-forming and inflectional suffixes) - any part of the word located behind the root, i.e., including the so-called 'inflection' (fleksiya)" [TCPH 1940 IV: 600]. Ushakov refers to the broad understanding of the suffix as any postfix morpheme in texts by linguists who divide suffixes into word-formative1 (proper suffixes) or inflectional2 (inflections).
"Inflection (fleksiya) [Latin flexio - letters. bending, bending] (lingv.). A way of forming word forms by changing endings. || The ending of the word itself changes with declension or conjugation. Internal inflection (vnutrennya-ya fleksiya) or basic inflection (fleksiya osnovy) (lingual). Inflectional (lingual). Forming shapes by inflection. Inflectional languages" [TCPH 1940 IV: 1091].
It is notable that inflection dictionary is linked to linguistic terms, while the ending (okonchanie) ("inflection, the part of a word that changes with declension, conjugation, or change of words by gender (gram.). In the word domami, the ending -ami" [TCPH 1938 II: 790]) pertains to grammatical terms.
When defining the concept of the basis (osnova), Ushakov refers to its expression of lexical meaning: "The part of a word that forms its material, lexical meaning and consists of a root, as well as a suffix and prefix, in contrast to inflection or ending (gram.). In the word 'ruchka', the basis is 'ruchk'" [TCPH 1938 II: 871].
Occasionally, the Dictionary provides outdated meanings of term. For instance, the term etymology: "[from Greek etymos - true and logos - teaching] (linguistics) 1. The department of linguistics that studies the origin of words ... 2. The very origin of the word Grammar without syntax (i.e., the doctrine of sounds, parts of speech and forms of words,
1 Word formation (slovoobrazovanie) (linguistics). Methods, the process of word formation in a language. The word-formation suffix [TSRYA 1940 IV: 273].
2 Inflection (slovoizmenenie) (linguistics). This is a change in words that expresses the relationship between words in speech. Forms of inflection (declension, conjugation, change by gender) [TSRYA 1940 IV: 272].
mainly. As a subject of school education (outdated). Folk etymology (narodnaya etimologiya) (lingua.) is the alteration of an incomprehensible (e.g. a borrowed word) explained by the need to bring it closer in sound similarity to some kind of from familiar words and thus comprehend it..." [TCPH 1940 IV: 1437].
Grammatical terms refer to concepts related to grammatical meaning, their expression methods, grammatical classes and categories (declension (sklonenie), conjugation (spryazhenie), etc.). For instance, "A verb is a part of speech denoting an action or state of an object, varying in tenses, persons and numbers (gram.)" [TCPH 1935 I: 565]. Or "Voice (zalog) (gram.) is a verb form denoting the various relations of an action to its producer or to its object. The active voice (deistvitel'nyi zalog). The passive voice (stradatel'nyi zalog)" [TCPH 1935 I: 971]. Grammatical terms also include those naming the types of connections of words in phrases: coordination (soglaso-vanie), management (upravlenie) and adjacency (primykanie). Phonetic terms, as well as the naming of linguistics sections (grammar, morphology, syntax, etc.), language units (e.g. phrases (slovosochetanie)), types of morphemes, etc., representing the structure of a language, fall under the category of linguistic terms.
Conclusion
The comparative analysis of two dictionaries of linguistic terms - N. N. Durnovo's and E. D. Polivanov's - reveals fundamentally different theoretical foundations within Russian language science. These foundations are reflected in the conceptual and terminological systems of the Moscow (Fortunatov) formal school and the St. Petersburg (Baudouin) phonology amid the emergence of structural linguistics. R. O. Shor's project, the Linguistic Encyclopedia, illustrates the inclination of proponents of new Marxist linguistics towards auditing established academic scientific schools and constructing the conceptual and terminological basis of the new socialist linguistics. Consequently, Russian scientists in the early 20th century proposed diverse approaches to compiling dictionaries of linguistic terminology, thereby provoking lively debates.
The analysis of linguistic terminology in D. N. Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language serves as a reflection of the development of Russian language science in
the 1930s. The diverse spectrum of schools and directions, connected with the radical shift in scientific paradigms, is evident in the dictionaries of Russian scientists. The Dictionary by N. N. Durnovo embodies the formal school in linguistics, while the conceptual and terminological groundwork of emerging phonology lies in the unpublished Dictionary by E. D. Poli-vanov1. Linguistic terms in D. N. Ushakov's
1 Further dictionaries in global science will be created, offering comprehensive reflections of phonology as the dominant direction in linguistics in the mid-20th century. Examples include Y. Vakhek's Linguistic Dictionary of the Prague School [BaxeK 1964]. Detailed coverage of phonolo-
Dictionary portray the evolution of the formal Fortunatov school of Russian linguistics, incorporating changes in scientific concepts and the assimilation of new ideas. Thus, the specialised vocabulary in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language captures a specific stage in the development of national language science.
gy as an exemplar of structurally describing a fragment of language systems will also be present in dictionaries in the latter half of the 20th century, such as in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Young Philologist (Linguistics) edited by M. V. Panov [Энциклопедический словарь... 1984].
Литература
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Вахек, Й. Лингвистический словарь пражской школы / Й. Вахек. - М. : Издательство «Прогресс», 1964. - 349 с.
Волошина, О. А. Два этюда о лингвистической деятельности Е. Д. Поливанова (к 130-летию со дня рождения) / О. А. Волошина // Русский язык в школе. - 2021а. - № 6. - С. 92-101.
Волошина, О. А. Научно-методический потенциал энциклопедических словарей по языкознанию для школьников / О. А. Волошина // Материалы XVIII Осенней школы русистики : сб. статей. - Нурсултан, 20216. - С. 138-147.
Волошина, О. А. Проект словаря-тезауруса терминов в научно-методическом наследии Ю. В. Рождественского / О. А. Волошина // Наследие трудов Ю. В. Рождественского в XXI в. - к 95-летию со дня рождения Юрия Владимировича (1926-1999). - М. : КнигИздат, 2022. - C. 35-44.
Дурново, Н. Н. Грамматический словарь (грамматические и лингвистические термины) / Н. Н. Дурново. - М. ; Пг. : Издательство Л. Д. Френкель, 1924. - 154 с.
Крысин, Л. П. Словарь под редакцией Д. Н. Ушакова / Л. П. Крысин // Энциклопедический словарь юного филолога (языкознание) / Сост. М. В. Панов. - М. : Педагогика, 1984. - С. 285-287.
Никитин, О. В. Очерки по истории русской лексикографии первой половины XX века (толковые словари) / О. В. Никитин. - Славянск-на-Кубани : Издательский центр филиала КубГУ в г. Славянске-на-Кубани, 2012. - 232 с.
Никитин, О. В. Из истории отечественного языкознания XX века : к 145-летию со дня рождения Д. Н. Ушакова / О. В. Никитин // Ученые записки Петрозаводского государственного университета. -2018а. - № 1 (170). - С. 88-95.
Никитин, О. В. Лингвистическая энциклопедия - неизвестный лексикографический проект 1930-х годов / О. В. Никитин // Вестник РУДН. Серия : Теория языка. Семиотика. Семантика. - 2018б. - Т. 9. № 3. - С. 612-624.
Поливанов, Е. Д. Словарь лингвистических и литературоведческих терминов (1935-1937). Архивная публикация / Е. Д. Поливанов // Поливанов, Е. Д. Труды по восточному и общему языкознанию. - М. : Наука, 1991. - С. 318-507.
ТСРЯ - Толковый словарь русского языка. Т. 1-4 / под ред. Д. Н. Ушакова. - М. : Гос. ин-т «Сов. энциклопедия» ; ОГИЗ, 1935-1940.
Ушаков, Д. Н. Краткое введение в науку о языке / Д. Н. Ушаков. - 7-е изд. - М. : Работник просве-щения,1925. - 143 с.
Энциклопедический словарь юного филолога (языкознание) / сост. М. В. Панов. - М. : Педагогика, 1984. - 352 с.
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Данные об авторе Author's information
Волошина Оксана Анатольевна - кандидат фило- Voloshina Oxana Anatolyevna - Candidate of Philolo-
логических наук, доцент кафедры общего и срав- gy, Associate Professor of Department of General and
нительно-исторического языкознания, Москов- Comparative Historical Linguistics, Lomonosov Mos-
ский государственный университет им. М. В. Ло- cow State University (Moscow, Russia); MSU-BIT Uni-
моносова (Москва, Россия); Совместный универси- versity (Shenzhen, China).
тет МГУ-ППИ (Шэньчжэнь, Китай).
Адрес: 119234, Россия, г. Москва, Ленинские горы, 1.
E-maiI: oxanav2005@maiI.ru.
Дата поступления: 08.10.2023; дата публикации: 30.12.2023 Date of receipt: 08.10.2023; date of publication: 30.12.2023
