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64LEXICAL-STYLISTIC VARIABILITY OF ENGLISH AND UZBEK LANGUAGES
Karimov M.
Namangan Institute of Engineering and Technology, Uzbekistan
ABSTARCT
Scientific articleis conditioned by the followings: Using language, especially, in varied structure plays a great role in the life of human being in different cultures and social communication thus it is done in the framework of new anthropocentric linguistic trends - Sociolinguistics and Linguoculturology. Furthermore, by the absence of scientific works devoted to the investigation of linguistic variability in English and Uzbek languages.
Keywords: Concept, variability, sociolinguistics, lexical-stylistic meaning.1
In modern linguistics there is no generally accepted understanding of the term "variability". The terms "variance", "variability" are used as equivalent. Some authors (G.M. Vishnevskaya, V.M. Solntsev) use the first two the term is synonymous (Солнцев, 1977, c. 344). The notion of variability is used, firstly, as characteristics of any linguistic variability, modification, which can be the result of evolution, the use of different linguistic means to denote similar or similar phenomena or the result of other causes; Secondly, as a characteristic of the mode of existence and functioning units of language in sync.
Others (A.D. Travkina, D.A. Shakhbagova) use the indicated terms differentially. "Varying" should be used to denote the very phenomenon or concept, and "variability" in relation to the results actions of this process. Despite the proximity of the terms in question, "one can use term variability to denote the property of mobility of units of language, whereas the term variability has a broader meaning. It serves to designations of variants of the language system (Shakhbagova, 1992, p.10).
When studying the approaches of A.D. Travkina and D.A. Shakhbagova becomes it is obvious that they distinguish variability - a process, a phenomenon accompanying the development of the language; Variability is a property of language that serves as a condition this process, as well as variability - the result of this
process, expressing the existence of different language variants.
Variability, as a phenomenon of the language system, is inherent in any level language. To identify its specificity in the various links of the language system, it is studied in the perspective of varying the language means at the level of phonetics, lexical and grammar. Clearly, the ability of language in the process of evolution to create competing means of expression at all levels of its structure:
1) phonetic;
2) morphemic;
3) lexical;
4) syntactic;
5) stylistic - under the influence of internal and external laws of language development (rop6aneBH% 1978, c. 238).
The above term is used in present day sociolin-guistics to refer to the small variability which occurs in language and which is determined by external, social factors. These variability can and do lead in time to language change. They contrast with variability in language which is motivated by internal factors - structural features of a language - which can also lead to change, especially when this internal variability occurs during first language acquisition.
Variant
1.1. Figure shows peculiarities of variability and variants.
Language variability is a core concept in sociolinguistics. Sociolinguists investigate whether this linguistic variability can be attributed to differences in the social characteristics of the speakers using the language, but also investigate whether elements of the surrounding linguisticcontext promote or inhibit the usage of certain structures.
Nowadays, the study of variability is a highly pro-ductivefield of research. Studying English variability from linguistic point of view is more fruitful field of research.
The English language, like all human languages, varies in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation according to a number ofsocial and cultural factors, including the region where a person grows.
Variability is a wonderful treasure and perpetual value of every spoken language. Like a mirror, it reflects the history of the people, and views all the events that have ever happened in this world. Variability (plurality of meanings) shows how interesting the development of the world can be, how many new types of technique appear, and how one word can mean many different things. All the powers of the language are concentrated in variability which expresses not only feelings, but also personal attitude towards something, personal problems and worldview.
Let us take the word "money" that is well known to everyone. Thus, the word "money" has such meanings in the English language, as:
1) what one earns by working or selling things;
2) coin or paper notes;
3) a person's wealth including their property;
4) a particular sum of money.
The bulk of English words are variability: they posses more than one meaning the actual number of meanings of the commonly used words ranges from five to about a hundred. In fact, the commoner the word the more meanings it has.
The word "table" has at least nine meanings in English:
1) a piece of furniture;
2) the persons, seated at a table (to keep the table amused);
3) the food, put on a table,meals ( to keep a good, poor table. );
4) a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood;
5) slabs of stone;
6) words cut into them or written on them;
7) an orderly arrangement of facts, figures, (table of contents);
8) part of machine tool, on which the workis put to be operated on;
It is not in every variability word that such a center can be found. Some semantic structures are arranged on a different principle. In the following list of meaning of the adjective dull one can hardly hope to find a generalized meaning covering and holding together the rest of the semantic structure.
Yet, one distinctly feels that there is something that all these meanings hold together. It's a certain component that can be easily singled out within each separate meaning.
(1) Betty took off her coat and gave him it.
If we limit ourselves to syntactic and phonological variability (as I do throughout this chapter), we could imagine a number of ways in which speakers of English might utter (1), or something very close.1 As a speaker of English born and raised in the English East Midlands, I could easily utter (1), but I could also utter (2).
(2) Betty took her coat off and gave him it.
9) a level area, a plateau.
The bulk of English words tend to increase in number of meanings. But the analysis of dictionaries doesn't allow one to draw any conclusion as to the exact number of vocabulary units in modern English. Different dictionaries register different number of words. The entries even in the most comprehensive dictionaries range from 500,000 to 600,000.
The selection and number of vocabulary units to be included in the dictionaries depends on the aims set before dictionary - compilers. The dictionaries whose object is to present a picture of spoken and written modern English contain about 75,000 entries. From these numbers we can take apart lexical-stylistic variability of words. The number of vocabulary items in the dictionaries compiled to meet the needs of foreign students of English whose primary aim is to acquire speaking knowledge of the language may range from 3,000 to 20,000..(Ginzburg, 1979).
Most English words are variability. It should be noted that the wealth of expressive resources of a language largely depends on the degree to which variability has developed in the language.
The system of meanings of any variability word develops gradually, mostly over the centuries, as more and more new meanings are either added to old ones, or out some of them. The general tendency with English vocabulary at the modern stage of its history is to increase the total number of its meanings in this way to provide for a quantitative and qualitative growth of the language's expressive resources.
The semantic structure of a variability word is treated as a system of meanings. For example, in the table 1 the semantic structure of the noun "fire" could be roughly presented by this scheme(only the most frequent meanings are given):
Table 1
Is (2) the same sentence as (1) It would be true under the same set of circumstances and it features the same set of words, so let's assume that it is. This means that a speaker from the North-West of England, for example, would also be uttering the same sentence if they said (3), which is how they, among others, might prefer it (Siewierska and Hollmann, 2007, p. 99).
(3) Betty took her coat off and gave it him.
The fact that (1), (2) and (3) are all possible in English plainly shows that syntactic variability exists, and variability at the phonological level is also unavoidable.
That same speaker from England's North-West might well pronounce Betty as [beti], her as [hO:] and off as [of]. A speaker from the North-West of the USA, on the other hand, would certainly have a orthotic pronunciation of her, like the Lancashire speaker, but would likely pronounce Betty as [beri] and off as [af].
Fire (n) 1) flame
2) instance of destructive burning (e.g. a forest fire)
3) burning materials in a stove, fire-place (e.g. There is a fire in the next room. A camp fire)
4)(mil.) shooting of guns (e.g. to open/case fire)
5)(lit.) strong feeling, passion, enthusiasm (e.g. a speech lacking fire)
Such examples can be multiplied manifold, as any speaker of English knows.
Betty would likely be [beti] for a speaker of London English, and many speakers from other parts of the UK might now vary between [beti] and [beri], with different types of populations favouring either the oral stop over the glottal or vice versa. Speakers from Liverpool, on the other hand, may realise the /t/ as a slit alveolar fricative, in a case of lenition, which we can represent as in [beti], and speakers from Newcastle upon Tyne might pronounce the name as [beti].
When we say that English object pronouns are stronger than subject pronouns, thismeans that they can stand alone more naturally (for most speakers). Part of the reasonthe vast majority of native speakers answer the question 'Who said that?' with 'Me' or 'Her'(and not 'I' or 'She') is that English subject pronouns are slightly weak and they prefer toattach to a predicate or a compound NP.
The fragment "cade" developed by clipping the beginning of the word "cavalcade" which is of Latin origin. In Latin the verb with the meaning "to ride a horse" is "cabalicare" and by means of the inflexion -ata the corresponding Participle is formed. So the element "cade" is a combination of the final letter of the stem and the inflexion. The splinter "cade" serves to
form nouns with the meaning "connected with the procession of vehicles denoted by the first component", e.g. "aircade" - "a group of airplanes accompanying the plane of a VIP", "autocade"-"a group of automobiles escorting the automobile of a VIP", "musicade"-"an orchestra participating in a procession" (Clark, 1996).
Let's look varied word "mouse" from lexical-stylistic analyzing:
1) a small rodent that typically has a pointed snout, relatively large ears and eyes, and a long tail;
2) (in general use) any similar small mammal, such as a shrew or vole;
3) a shy, timid and quiet person;
4) a dull light brown color reminiscent of a mouse's fur;
5) a small handheld device that is dragged across a flat surface to move the cursor on a computer screen;
6) (informal) a lump or bruise, esp. one on or near the eye.
In this respect it should be mentioned that number of approaches are the great helper in making the meanings of words such as semasiological one.
Semasiological - starts with the name (form) and consists in considering different meanings of the word, determining interrelations between them, as well as discovering semantic relations between different words. The semasiological approach (variability)
Semasiological Approach to Meaning (Variability)
Descriptive Lexicology that deals with the vocabulary and vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time. A Course in Modern English Lexicology is therefore a course in Special Descriptive Lexicology, its object of study being the English vocabulary as it exists at the present time.
The diachronic approach in terms of Special Lexicology deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time. It is special Historical Lexicology that deals with the evolution of the vocabulary units of a language as time goes by. An English
Historical Lexicology would be concerned, therefore, with the origin of English vocabulary units, their change and development, the linguistic and extra-linguistic factors modifying their structure, meaning and usage within the history of the English language (Mill-ward, 2012).
Table 2 shows historical (diachronic) change affecting words that currently refer, or have at some time referred, to word "women" (Ginzburg, 1979):
Table 2
Gay (adj.) 1) (persons) full of j oy and mirth (1310) 2) addicted to social pleasures and dissipations (1637) 3) (woman) leading an immoral life (1825) 4) homosexual (1935) stupid 5) hopeless (1980s)
Girl 1. a child of either sex e.g., knave girl (1290) 2. a female child, woman unmarried (1530) 3. a sweetheart, lady-love (1648) 4. a prostitute or mistress (1711) 5. a Black woman(1835)
Harlot 1. a low fellow, knave (1330) 2. a male servant (1386) 3. an unchastewoman, a strumpet (1450)
Hussy 1. a mistress of a household, thrifty woman (1530) 2. a (playfully) rude a term of addressing woman (17th C) 3. a female of the lower orders of a low or improper behaviour (18th C)
Tart 1. a delicious baked pastry (1430) 2. a young woman for whom some affection is felt (1864) 3. a female prostitute (1887) 4. a young favourite of an older man, a catamite, a male prostitute (1935)
Queen 1. a king's wife, woman of high rank (893, 900) 2. a term of endearment to a woman(1588) 3. an attractive woman girlfriend (1900) 4. a male homosexual (1924)
Whore 1. a female prostitute (1100) 2. a woman committing adultery (1440) 3. a general term of abuse (1633) 4. a male prostitute (1968)
Wench 1. a female child(1290) 2. a wanton woman (1362) 3. a servant (1380) 4. a working classgirl (1575)
It should be emphatically stressed that the distinction between the synchronic and the diachronic study is merely a difference of approach separating for the purposes of investigation what in real language is inseparable. The two approaches should not be contrasted, or set one against the other; in fact, they are intrinsically interconnected and interdependent: every linguistic structure and system actually exists in a state of constant development so that the synchronic state of a language system is a result of a long process of linguistic evolution, of its historical development.
All languages change over time and vary according to place and social setting. We can observe lexical variability - differences in words and phrases - by comparing the way English is spoken in different places and among different social groups. Despite the belief that dialect words are no longer very widely used, there remains a great deal of lexical diversity in the UK. This is demonstrated, for instance, by the variety of words used for "bread roll" in different parts of the country. If you live in Lancashire you might buy a barmy cake, whilst people over The Pennines in Leeds would probably ask for abread cake. At a baker's in Derby you might be offered a cob and on a visit to Country you might eat a batch, although each of these words refers pretty much to the same item.
The semantic structure of the word/lexeme is a set of interrelated semantic variants of the word arranged in a certain lexicographic order where each variant is termed a lexical-stylistic-semantic variant (LSSV) of the word:
Gentleman - 1) A gentleman is a man who comes from a family of high social standing; especially one of wealth and leisure;
2) (lit.) a chivalrous, courteous, or honorable man;
3) a man of noble birth attached to a royal household;
4) if you say that a man is a gentleman, you mean he is polite and educated, and can be trusted;
5) (politeness) You can address men as gentlemen, or refer politely to them as gentlemen;
6) A gentleman's agreement or a gentlemen's agreement is an informal agreement in which people trust one another to do what they have promised;
7) (polit.) used as a courteous title for a male fellow member of the House of Commons or the House of Representatives.
As you see there are 7 LSVs of word "gentleman" observed.Now let's look another example on the table 2 lexical-stylistic structure of "Baby":
Table 3
Baby LSV 1) a) a newborn or recently born child, infant; b) (as modifier) baby food LSV 2) the youngest or smallest of a family or group.
LSV 3) a) a newborn or recently born animal; b) (as modifier) baby rabbits.
LSV 4) usually derogatory : an immature person
LSV 5) slang : a young woman or sweetheart:often used as a term of address expressing affection
LSV 6) a project of personal concern
"Child" LSV 1) A child is a human being who is not yet an adult
LSV 2) a boy or girl between birth and puberty or below the legal age of majority
LSV 3) a human offspring; a son or daughter of any age
LSV 4) a childish, immature or irresponsible person
LSV 5) a member of a family or tribe; descendant
LSV 6) a person or thing influenced by a specified event or environment; a child of the Independence
The word in one of its meanings is termed as lexical-stylistic-semantic variant of this word. For example the word table has at least 9 lexical-stylistic-semantic variants:
1. a piece of furniture;
2. the persons seated at a table;
3. sing. the food put on a table, meals;
4. a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc.;
5. pl. slabs of stone;
6. words cut into them or written on them (the ten tables);
7. an orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.;
8. part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated on;
9. a level area, a plateau.
Figure 1
Brat
These examples are taken from "Uzbek National Encyclopedia". Now lef s turn to the next pages of encyclopedia:_
5 Reaktor 1. o'zgaruvchan tok zanjirida qisqa tutashuv sodir bo'lganda, tokni cheklab qo'yadigan yuqori voltli elektr apparati. 2. Kim. Muayyan tempratura va bosim sharoitida kimyoviy hamda biokimyoviy reaksiyalar hosil qilish uchun ishlatiladigan apparat. 3. Fiz. Boshqariluvchi radioaktiv reaksiya - atom yadrolarining parchalanish reaksiyasi amalga oshiriladigan qurilma. Reactor 364
6 Trenajer 1. maxs. Muayyan kasb malakalarini orttirish, mashina, mexanizmlarni boshqarishni o'rganish uchun mo'ljallangan moslama. 2. Sprt. Jismoniy mashqlar vositasida turli xil muskullarni o'rgatish, chiniqtirishga yordam beruvchi moslama, qurilma. Train 169
7 Trest 1. iqt. Monopoliya shakllaridan biri - tadbirkorlarning iqtisodiy birlashmasi; bunda ishtirokchilar o'zlarining avvalgi ishlab chiqarish, tijorat va yuridik mustaqilligini yo'qotib, yagona boshqaruvga bo'ysunadilar. 2. Esk. Sobiq SSSR mamlakatlarida: mahsulotlarning bir turdaligi yoki xomashyoga ishlov bosqichlari bo'yicha o'zaro bog'langan korxonalar birlashmasi Trest 170
Variability of Uzbek words colored functionally-stylistic found in table 7.
Table 7
T/r Functionally-stylistic colored terms Functionally -stylistic colored words in numbers Functionally-stylistic colored words in %
1 Poetic-literary 69 7.1 %
2 Archaic 272 27.8 %
3 Literary 73 7.5 %
4 Slang, jargons 246 25.1 %
5 Religious 318 32.5 %
General counting 978 100 %
Variability is certainly not an anomaly. Most Uzbek words are variability. It should be noted that the wealth of expressive resources of a language largely depends on the degree to which variability has developed in the language. Sometimes people who are not very well informed in linguistic matters claim that a language is lacking in words if the need arises for the same word to be applied to several different phenomena. In actual fact, it is exactly the opposite: if each word is found to be capable of conveying at least two concepts instead of one, the expressive potential of the whole vocabulary increases twofold. Hence, a well-developed variability is a great advantage in a language (Юсупов, 2007, b. 126).
On the other hand, it should be pointed out that the number of sound combinations that human speech organs can produce is limited. Therefore at a certain stage of language development the production of new words by morphological means is limited as well, and variability becomes increasingly important for enriching the vocabulary. From this, it should be clear that the process of enriching the vocabulary does not consist merely in adding new words to it, but, also, in the constant development of variability.
The system of meanings of any variability word develops gradually, mostly over the centuries, as more
and more new meanings are added to old ones, or oust some of them. So the complicated processes of variability development involve both the appearance of new meanings and the loss of old ones. Yet, the general tendency with Uzbek vocabulary at the modern stage of its history is to increase the total number of its meanings and in this way to provide for a quantitative and qualitative growth of the language's expressive resources.
References
1. Абдуллаев Ю.Н., Бушуй А.М. Язык и общество.-Ташкент: Фан, 2002.- 373 с.
2. Ахманова О.С. Словарь лингвистических терми-нов.-М.: Советская энциклопедия, 1966.- 607 с.
3. Ашурова Д.У. Стилистика текста в парадигме когнитивной лингвистики // Филология масалалари. -Ташкент, 2003.-№> 1-С. 41-45.
4. Будагов Р.А. Человек и его язык.-М.: Изд-во МГУ, 1974.-262 с.
5. Узбек тилининг изохли лугати. 5 жилдли / А. Мадвалиев тахр. ост.-Тошкент: Узбекистан миллий энциклопедияси, 2006-2008.
6. Ginzburg R.S. A course in modern English lexicology. - Moscow: Gnozis, 1979. - p.109
THE PLACE OF AUTHOR'S PERSONAL AND INTERPERSONAL COMPARISON MEANS IN
TRANSLATION OF «BABURNAME»
Khoshimova D.
Doctor of Science on philology Namangan Institute of Engineering and Technology
ABSTRACT
This article is about Babur's ideas and experience on ruling system, history of military art and strategy of fighting a battle serve to reveal his important features and aspects of his character. The author of «Baburname» when he compares himself as a military leader and ruler with famous shahs in the past and as a result of such comparison the reader believes in his great skill deeper. The author's artistic mastery, unrepeated features in describing the spiritual state of the personages, a peculiar style of determining a person's character were also resorted the pragmatic features of the original in the English translation.
Keywords: history of military art, important features, comparison means, ruling system, translator's professionalism,
Three interconnected problems including author's personal and interpersonal comparison means in translation, the place of descriptive means reflecting psychology of a character in translation, realization of the author's comparison method in translation were investigated.
More the 1560 historical persons, existence of about 30 facts about science, lots of surprising facts of
life episodes, each person appeared with the features which belong only to him, interesting historical stories, the nature, relief (toponomy), flora and rich information on customs and traditions of various nations are vivid proof our opinion.
Babur's ideas and experience on ruling system, history of military art and strategy of fighting a battle serve to reveal his important features and aspects of his
