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LEARNING CLIMATE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING OF THE STUDENTS OF HIGHER SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Doctor of Science on Physical Education, Associate Professor, Head of Course M. W. Fiedor, Laboratory of Theory & Teaching Methodology of Sport, The Academy of Physical Education named after Bronislaw Czech in Krakow, Krakow, The Polish Republic
Doctor of the Humanities, Adjunct K. K. Tucholska, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, The Polish Republic
§ 1. Introduction
Traditional system of academic learning determines participation in classes, lecturesandseminars. Generally, during most of the classes students are passive watchers of referred content. Against a background of it, seminary classes should be favored. Working on a chosen subject and own research project should be an occasion to involve students in an active process of learning oriented only by a thesis supervisor. It's assumed that student's success on the last level of academic education and in writing a master degree, depends on his previously gained knowledge, skills, creativeness and motivation for an intellectual work.
Knowledge about how to influence on student favorably (without taking over responsibility for him and not dominating him), as well as how to strengthen his self-determination (instead of passive or submissive attitude being under pressure) seems to be a key to effective wayofteaching. Itshould be remembered that aim of education is not only handing over knowledge and practical skills but also creating personal competence.
Self-determination theory offered by E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan is based on motivation psychology and appears to be appropriate key to solve this problem. According to this theory ([1-3] and other references in our publication [4]) motivated behavior differs in autonomy (spontaneous, easy) and control. Controlled behavior is the effect of external pressure (awards, punishment) or pressure from an internal controller like sense of duty, willingness to avoid fear or sense of guilt.
Autonomous behavior is intrinsically motivated. It's result of self-direction, it means that it's independent of outside subjective strengthens, situational or interpersonal conditions. They're considered as personally important and valuable. Individual experiences them as arising from its soul, completely dependent on willpower. Interest, joy, sense of engagement, sense of autonomy and competence come along.
According to theorist by self-determination theory, group of autonomous behavior includes also behavior which originally was created by extensive factors but it developed on the way of values' integration and became internal as well as seen by the individual as result of will (look [2, 5, 6]).
E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan's theory assumes that environment
in which the individual functions decides about the level on which the individual feels itself autonomous or controlled. We can say generally that environment in which the individual stays, can support its autonomy and sense of self-determination or it can effects with control what doesn't support keeping motivation to act, creating responsibility and taking up autonomous actions (look [1, 5]). Crucial "autonomy support" term that appears in this context concerns these people who are authorities (including managers, doctors, trainers, teachers) presenting communication style and way of treating people being under their influence that strengthens sense of their self-determination. These people are responsible for creating favorable conditions for taking up autonomous actions in a career area, healthy behavior, going in for sport or education on different levels.
§ 2. Own research methodology Research problem and research
aim. Undertaken research problem concerns searching for connection between climate for academic study created by thesis supervisor and psychological functioning of student who work with him. Researches are led to establish the level of fulfilling basic psychological needs of students depending on the level on which sense of autonomy is strengthen by the thesis supervisor. Moreover, researches are to verify the assumptions of self-determination theory in Poland.
Hypothesis. Basing on thesis of self-determination theory, we can assume that students perceive their thesis supervisor as supporting their autonomy in an academic work (it means creating climate for studying) which is connected with fulfilling basic psychological needs and what is more with better mental functioning.
Respondents. Group of respondents (N = 322) was made of students in the fourth and fifth year and second year of postgraduate studies in Academy of Physical Education in Krakow. The average age of the respondents was 24 (M = 23,89; SD = 2,59). Among the respondents women made 41 % but men 59 % (N = 189). Proportions reflected natural disproportion in this type of college. Researches were conducted in a group form during academic classes in December 2007. They were voluntary and anonymous.
Fig. 1. Schedule of results in Learning Climate Questionnaire all examined students
Methods. There were used two methods of psychological measuring worked out by on the base of self-determination theory's assumptions with acknowledged status. There was used Learning Climate Questionnaire adapted by reference [7]. This method is well-aimed when studying feelings that student has in contacts with chosen teacher in connection with his conduct's style relative to students. There are 15 questions to which respondents answer by circling 1 of 7 numbers, where 1 means "I completely do not agree", 4 stands for "I haven't made up my mind, yet" and 7 means "I completely agree".
After summarizing results in fifteen items (and turning the scoring away in 13th item) we get a common rate called WA (supporting autonomy's rate). It can value from 15 to 105 scores. The higher it is, the more understood and accepted students feel in contact with chosen academic teacher and the bigger feeling they have that they are given a choice and are strengthen in asking questions. This kind of teacher behavioral style is well disposed towards creating and strengthening sense of self-determination of students. In described researched project, students in 4th and 5th year of Academy of Physical Education in Krakow when answer the questions of Learning Climate Questionnaire describe their reflections about their relations with thesis supervisor in comparison with their support in students' autonomy.
In measurement of mental functioning of respondents there was used Basic Psychological Needs Scale by [1], translated and worked out by Z. Uchnast. It's made of 21 items. The respondent puts down by every statement number from 1 to 7 describing how it refers to him where 1 means "completely false", 4 - "partly true", 7 - "completely true". This method allows to measure the level of fulfilling three basic psychological needs.
1. Autonomy need - self-directed, possibility of acting in sense of freedom of choice;
2. Competence need - influence on the course of events and effects of undertaken actions;
3. Relatedness need - natural need of contacts,
membership, taking care of others and cooperation.
The 4th summary indication set after using this method is general and reflects the level of fulfilling all psychological needs. The results of Basic Psychological Needs Scale are presented T-scale (T), where average (M) is 50 and standard deviation (SD) is 10.
§ 3. The results and interpretation
There were calculated results for every respondent in Learning Climate Questionnaire. Full layout of the results is presented in the paper [4]. It's also illustrated in Fig. 1. The average of results gained by the students of Academy of Physical Education in Krakow in Learning Climate Questionnaire was M = 80,72 with standard deviation SD = 15,00. A minimal score in this group was 22 but top score was 105.
It should be noticed that, according to this results decided majority of students at Academy of Physical Education in Krakow assess their thesis supervisors as good or very good. In their opinion they have positive attitude towards students and support their autonomy. Only minor part of the group (8 people) got very low score (below two standard deviations from the average), what indicates that they the academic climate as completely unsatisfying. This group would need casuistic treating, especially with bearing in mind causes of such state. Unfortunately it goes beyond this paper work. To examine connection between learning climate created by thesis supervisor and students' psychological functioning, there were two groups distinguished with taking into consideration a quarter deviation in their results in Learning Climate Questionnaire.
One group was made of students perceiving their thesis supervisor as clearly supporting autonomy (W-WA in abbreviation). This group involved 70 students (40 % of women and 60 % of men) whose score was between 95-105.
Second group was made of 82 students (37 % of women and 63 % of men) who see their thesis supervisor as not much supporting their autonomy and presenting rather controlling style in doing their academic job. The results of this group (N-WA in abbreviation) was the lowest among all respondents and comprised in 22-71 scores. Students of the W-WA group (high level of perceptible supporting their autonomy) have feeling that they are accepted by their thesis supervisor. They trust him fully and feel that they can speak openly to him. They are convinced that he cares about them and takes into consideration their opinion and feelings. They see the thesis supervisor as a person who is trying to understand their point of view first before he offers his solution. Moreover, they feel he gives them an opportunity to make their own choices and believe in them. He encourages to a critical thinking and asking questions, when asked he answers at length. These students admit that they comfortably in contacts with thesis supervisor. Students of the N-WA group (low level of felt supporting in autonomy) feel treated with disrespect and over-controlled by their thesis supervisors. They indicate lack of agreement, lack of trust and sense that they are not given an opportunity to make their own choices or cooperation in a matter that concerns them.
Fig. 2. Average results in Basic Psychological Needs Scale of extreme distinguished.
It was checked how the results in described groups above shaped in the BNS. Full combination of statistic data is presented in Fig. 2. Their initial analysis indicates that there are statistically important differences between levels of scores in all three scales in distinguished groups of students: Need of Autonomy (potrzeba autonomii; p < 0,003), Need of Competence (potrzeba kompetencji; p < 0,001) and Need of Relations (potrzeba relacji) with others (p < 0,001).
Students who work in an academic environment in a supportive climate are more psychical functional in a different way than others who didn't have that chance. Those who have thesis supervisors strengthening their self-determination are distinguished by high level of fulfilling need of autonomy. They feel free in making decisions and expressing their ideas and opinions. They act on the base of self-motivation, they are inclined to internal not external standards of reference. They feel they have influence on the course of events and effects of undertaken actions. Sense of their own capabilities and competence accompanies by them. They fulfill themselves in what they do. They turn friendly themselves towards people around them and feel that are well liked. They experience friendly concern from others.
A need of contacts, affiliation and stay in emotional close contacts is as a matter of fact fulfilled among them. They cooperate with others without sense of loss of independence or their own initiative. Fulfilling needs of autonomy, sense of their own effectiveness and closeness is a base of appropriate functioning, psychical integration as well as personal and social optimal development. There is a lack of sense of their own effectiveness, possibility of influence on the course of events as well as confidence in themselves and others' kindliness, when students' self-determination isn't strengthen in contacts with the thesis supervisor.
Let's suppose it has an effect on their physical and mental state also effectiveness of their work by reducing them.
§ 4. Conclusion
To begin it should be marked that most of the students at the Academy of Physical Education in Krakow see their contact with the thesis supervisor as favorable for developing the sense of self-determination and effectiveness of undertaken actions. Unfortunately it should me also admitted that there is rather small but important group with completely different opinions. It arouses anxiety because these future teachers and coaches
seem to be in a lost position. They are burden with a great risk of development the burnout syndrome because they suffer from lack of personal and interpersonal competence that are threshold characteristics of this profession.
According to given results, students' self-determination meant as capability to undertake autonomous actions (here in learning process) seems to be highly connected with teacher's approach to the matter with whom they work. Accepted hypothesis's been positively verified.
The teacher's influence isn't only to transmit the knowledge but also strengthen the student's autonomy and doesn't rely on leave them alone and keep the distance between. According to self-determination theory and received results, the autonomy isn't equivalent with self-sufficiency or independence. A student, a patient or an employee will be always dependent on his teacher, doctor or manager. This type of contact is in a system of dependence by nature.
In this context, supporting their autonomy by people with authority (mentioned teachers, doctors or managers) means strengthening everyone as a person. It turns out that it's fulfilling their three basic psychological needs: need of the autonomy, competence and experiencing effectiveness of actions as well as need of interpersonal contacts. Sense of self-directing taken out from it, being in full control of the situation and sense of having relations with the others condition good functioning, integrity, psychical health and optimal personal and social development.
It should be admitted that described optimal thesis supervisor's attitude seen from the students' functioning perspective, based on the climate created by him to strengthen students' autonomy, is close to what C. Rogers [8] together with psychologists and educators call "student-centered attitude".
However, because the "climate supporting the autonomy" term was very well worked out by theorist by self-determination theory (in the whole family of methods Climate Questionnaire, and among them Learning Climate Questionnaire which is used here) we promote exactly these theoretical references. A key to strengthening student's autonomy student himself is a good contact with him and giving him a signal that he is accepted, understood and respected, along with a teaching content. To recapitulate, conducted researches explicitly show that if academic teachers (thesis supervisors) support their students' autonomy, they function better in a psychological respect. Generally these results are cohesive with sparsely presented in Poland [9] or in Western Europe (researches' review by G. C. Williams and E. L. Deci [10]).
We suppose that in the future they will also support the autonomy of their students, working as coaches, physical education teachers or trainers. It's still an open question, to what extend better functioning of students in the climate supporting their autonomy translates into the effectiveness of their academic learning and success in this field.
Acknowledgements
The co-authors of this paper intimately acknowledge the moral support and sincere interest to their researches by Prof. I. V. Kochubey (The Russian Federation).
Теория и методика спортивной тренировки
List of used literature
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2. Ryan, R. M. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions [Text] / R. M. Ryan, E. L. Deci // Contemporary Educational Psychology.- 2000.- Vol. 25.- P. 54-67.
3. Ryan, R. M. An Overview of Self-determination Theory [Text] / R. M. Ryan, E. L. Deci // Handbook of Self-determination Research / Editors E. L. Deci, R. M. Ryan.- Rochester (New York): University of Rochester Press, 2002.- P. 3-33.
4. Tucholska, K. Klimat sprzyjaj^cy nauce akademickiej a psychologiczne funkcjonowanie studentow - implikacje teorii autodeterminacji [Text] / K. Tucholska, M. Fiedor // Interakcje komunikacyjne w edukacji z perspektywy sytuacyjnosci i kontekstowosci znaczen / Pod redakcja A. Btachnio, M. Drzewowskiego, M. Schneider, W. Maliszewskiego.- Torun: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszatek, 2008.- S. 44-557.
5. Black, A. E. The Effects of Instructors' Autonomy Support and Students' Autonomous Motivation on Learning Organic Chemistry: A
Self-determination Theory Perspective [Text] / A. E. Black, E. L. Deci // Science of Education.- 2000.- Vol. 84.- P. 740-756.
6. Ryan, R. M. Perceived Locus of Causality and Internalization: Examining Reasons for Acting in Two Domains [Text] / R. M. Ryan, J. P. Connell // Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.- 1989.-Vol. 57.- P. 749-761.
7. Williams, G. C. Internalization of Biopsychosocial Values by Medical Students: A Test of Self-determination Theory [Text] / G. C. Williams, E. L. Deci // Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.-1996.- Vol. 70.- P. 767-779.
8. Rogers, C. Freedom to Learn [Text] / C. Rogers.- Columbus (Ohio): Merrill, 1969.
9. Artymiak, M. Autodeterminacja a psychologiczna jakosc zycia. Implikacje teorii autodeterminacji Ryana i Deciego. Wyst^pienie wygtoszone na 17 Europejskim Sympozjum Somatoterapii i Edukacji Psychosomatycznej, nt. Promocja zdrowia - mit czy rzeczywistosc. Mi^dzy teori^ a praktyk^. Krakow, 25-27 pazdziernika 2007 [Text] / M. Artymiak.
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ОПЕРАТИВНАЯ ДИАГНОСТИКА СИТУАТИВНЫХ ПРОЯВЛЕНИЙ ЛИЧНОСТИ СПОРТСМЕНОВ-СТРЕЛКОВ НА СОРЕВНОВАНИЯХ
С. В. Кочеткова, М. В. Ясловецкая
введение. В практике спорта известно, что степень успешности преодоления соревновательных трудностей связана не только с психическими состояниями, но и с личными качествами спортсмена.
Одним из произвольных регуляторов поведения личности является "Я-концепция". Система же непроизвольной саморегуляции формируется в процессе стихийного накопления опыта под личным контролем сначала вопреки желанию, а затем непосредственно при желании личности.
В работе С. В. Кочетковой (2000) показано, что на результативность медленной и комплексной стрельбы вне зависимости от квалификации стрелков-пистолетчиков оказывают влияние повышенная сила торможения и инертность нервной системы, средний уровень соревновательной эмоциональной устойчивости и пониженная невроти-зация.
С другой стороны, психофизическое состояние, с которым спортсмен вступает в соревнование, имеет три ком-
понента - физический, эмоциональный и мыслительный (А. В. Алексеев, 1995). При этом максимальная мобилизационная готовность достигается за счет преимущественно какого-то одного, ведущего для данной личности, компонента.
По данным В. И. Рождественской (1980), к утомлению более чувствительны показатели, связанные с двигательной сферой, к монотонии - с вегетативной, а к эмоциональному напряжению - их неустойчивость. Отсюда возникает проблема поиска способов обучения спортсменов экспресс-коррекции психофизического состояния непосредственно в ходе соревнования.
Поскольку изучение свойств личности с помощью опросников затруднено так называемым фактором социальной желательности, возрастает роль проективных тестов, позволяющих изучить неосознаваемые и даже подсознательные реакции личности в оценке как самой себя, так и любой социальной ситуации, включая спортивное соревнование.
