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ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ
УДК 373.1 J. Böhm
LEARNING AS A CAPACIOUS PHENOMENON - THE EXAMPLE SCOOL MEAL
Arguing from a pedagogical perspective, the article combines the phenomena of learning and (social) environments. This clearly demonstrates that even beyond pedagogical arrangements (lessons, projects etc.) pedagogical potential is present and thus various learning causes and learning contents are available. This inherent learning potential (pedagogical valencies) is to be compared with a typing of learning forms and the example of school meals will give an exemplary display of that.
Key words: Learning, learning space, pedagogical valencies, eating at school, types of learning informal learning.
1. Introduction
Educational actions depend on hope. It is about the hope that contents which were chosen, didactically edited and taught by the educator, will eventually be learned by the educandus/learner. This assumption has been the fundament of educational history of ideas since its earliest efforts. It still guides many teachers, lecturers, trainers, educators as well as managers and personnel officers who continue to hope that specific further education may improve the productivity of their employees. This becomes most visible at schools where curricula are usually being equaled with learning plans. Contents of the curricula are to be learned by the pupils within a certain period of time, mostly one school year. This assumption is also the basis on which examinations are build on and justified with.
The crux is, however, that it is not implicitly what has been learned but what has been taught which gets tested in the end, much to the misery of the students. This does not only include cognitive contents but also the so-called social learning which is subject to that teaching-learning-short circuit. It is expected that rules of social behavior are being adopted through instruction and practice. Teachers seem to understand that this assumption is neither fully consistent.
Another belief of learning and teaching refers to the environment of learning, namely the learning spheres. Organized learning needs the protection of the environment as well as their own learning spaces. It is
БЕМ Ян- преподаватель университета, г. Клаген-фурт, Австрия.
E-mail: Jan. Boehm@aau.at.
advisable to speak of learning spaces as a continuum. In this respect, one can picture two historical examples as particular extremes: There is, on the one hand, Rousseau’s learning space which is utterly controlled and sealed off, a total surrounding. On the other hand, there is the so-called community education with its main objective to shift learning into everyday life and to not differentiate between realms of learning and experience.
Different perceptions of learning stand in between those two extremes. Both premises lead from causalities which have been, pretty much, validated and which form the basis of many curricula, series of seminars etc.
1. Good teaching leads to high (maximal) learning achievements
2. Educationally designed rooms allow good teaching and thus support successful learning.
Due to their totality, both assumptions cannot be kept up. They have to face new findings of recent teaching-and learning research that is also essentially influenced by the knowledge of neuroscience and has, therefore, newly stimulated the reflection on learning.
In the following, I am going to sketch the notion ’learning’ as well as the possibilities and boundaries of neuroscientific findings. Subsequently, I am going to discuss the question which influence environments have on learning. By doing so, I won’t restrict the discussion to physical rooms such as the classroom or the seminar room but I will use the term for social rooms in general.
The example of school lunch/meals will point out that certain arrangements may enable learning experiences. Such arrangements suffice without a prior didactical preparation but still have the potential to be designed beneficially if recognized by educators.
I call those learning possibilities which are inherent
in the situation or the environment pedagogical valencies. It is supposed to become clear that these pedagogical valencies cannot simply be listed in the conclusion or even be invented. They rather need to be recognized and increased by educational fantasy.
The final part will practically train the issues sketched out by taking a look at other social environments in order to detect their pedagogical valencies.
By doing so, it soon becomes clear that this concept can neither be restricted to one type of school nor to one learning space. It is rather permanently present as a learning possibility. Pedagogical valencies are, at best, the opportunities to occupy lifelong learning.
2. Learning and learning theories
I deliberately use the general term ’learning’ and thus include other, strongly normatively coined terms such as schooling and education. There are countless definitions of ’learning’; however, there are two aspects which form the fundament of educational as well as
psychological efforts in defining the term: Learning is the result of experience and leads to steady changes in behavior. I do endorse the following definition:
"Learning includes all actions of an organism, especially those within the central nervous system (brain) which cannot be observed directly. These actions are the result of experience (but not of maturation, imprinting, drug use or the like) and lead to a relatively permanent
change or extension of the behavioral repertoire”
Krüger & Helsper (2002, 97).
The psychological training of educators always
includes learning theories. Mostly in a chronological order, the approaches of behaviorism, cognitivism as well as humanistic approaches are being discussed. Two very important impulses were recently added: learning as the result of individual construction as well as neuroscientific findings. Neuroscience and cognitivism strongly influence each other. The neurosciences indicate that it is possible to watch people while they are thinking. It is known by now which brain areas are in charge of which basal functions. Yet we also know that the outside-, this means the environmental influence on the brain is much less than assumed. Rather does the brain interact with itself more than with its environment. We call this self-organized systems (autopois).
This finding poses a threat to classical learning theories since they assume that learning is mainly triggered by external impulses (teaching). Constructivism incorporates this finding and shapes, on the basis of biological assumption (Varela/Maturana), a theory which assumes that the human being as a matter of principle has no direct access to reality. Thus, reality is rather the construct of our brain. Our understanding of reality is, therefore, the performance of our brain and no image of some reality.
In education, especially in adult education where the belief was particularly absorbed, this radical assumption has been qualified by its representatives themselves. The consequence of the radical assumption would be that institutional learning in general needed to be called into question.
The question is to which extent neuroscientific findings may explain learning phenomena. One big issue is that neuroscientists utterly reduce learning to its physical substrate. By doing so, the question of its significance is completely dismissed. Rather is the process of learning described as a material process. It is, however, precisely the meaningfulness which makes up human life. Thus, what neuroscience investigates does not match the educational interest of studying the human being.
Up to today, learning psychology has generated countless, in part highly contradictory findings. To the present, there has been no generally accepted major learning theory. Thus, I am not going to analyze each learning theory even though they are important and momentous.
The following distinction does not present a learning theory. Still, it helps to classify learning phenomena with regard to learning opportunities in social environments. If we wish to recognize and understand the world, we will need to make clear conceptual distinctions. Only then observations are possible. Such conceptual distinctions never reflect reality as such and also do not reconstruct a reality. They are rather constructions. The question whether the chosen distinctions may be useful for an understanding of the world arises from the circumstance if communication has been enabled and if this communication was triggered, accelerated as well as structured by this distinction.
I suggest the distinction into three types of learning:
1. Intentional Learning
2. Functional Learning
3. Extensional Learning
Intentional learning describes learning which is supposed to usually happen in organized and institutionalized facilities.
Intensional Learning can be characterized with:
• It takes place on purpose and therefore
consciously
• It is based on the anthropologic basic assumption that people have innate abilities which are alterable, extendable and discriminable; abilities which can be saved as well as retrieved
• The learner anticipates the outcome and directs his or her efforts towards the learning subject matter
• Time for learning is spent and organized
deliberately
• Intentional Learning has a double limitation by individual biological options: 1. the individual is already capable of learning, 2. certain topics may exceed the
cognitive limitations
There are in part different terms for functional learning: Common ones are: casual learning, implicit learning. Characteristics:
• Learning effects as byproducts of other activities
• Even though the actual activity was planned, the learning-side effects were not
• They are not controlled (neither by the learner him-or herself nor by a third person)
• Presentiveness is assumed (the action must not be highly abstract)
• Certain homogeneity of experiences is assumed, i.e. absent irritating alternatives or by repetitions
• Functional learning relieves from planning, means and organization and saves resources
• Disadvantage: it takes time (repetitions ...)
Extensional learning derives from the Latin term
”extensio” for extension, expansion.
The following aspects are typical of extensional learning:
• Extensional education expands the dimensions of time and space
• Learning takes place indirectly
• Extensional learning happens in a functional manner, however, it has been intended (planned and arranged) by a third person (intentional)
• simple example: stay abroad as an Au Pair
• Extensional learning describes learning which is always initiated by a third person, namely as functional learning.
• Aim: to create situations that allow functional learning. Advantage: There is no learning resistance to be expected
• Disadvantage: From the viewpoint of the person
in charge (e.g. teacher), extensional learning can never be guaranteed.
3. Spaces and their educational valencies
As implied above, learning spaces shall be understood in the widest sense. Thus, it is useful to speak of fields of experience which are certainly always located in some way rather than to speak of physical spaces.
Fields of experience describe social learning spheres in which a person takes action in any form. The spectrum of such fields of experience ranges from the classroom to the way to school (by oneself, with schoolmates, by bus... ).
Fields of experience which are not directly related to lessons, seminars, further education are, seen from an educational perspective,“released” which means that they are not attached with educational value.
To remain with the example of the way to school: from a pedagogical viewpoint, the way to school is simply the overcoming of the distance from one’s home to school. Frequently, this field of experience gets attributed
negatively: it is said to be not pedagogically controllable as well as not possible to be surveilled. On the way to school things might happen which are detrimental to schooling (e.g. violence).
Pedagogical valency implies that there are experience-and action impulses included in certain situations which offer learning stimuli. These impulses may be immanent in the event if it is arranged in a certain way, however, they can also be set by another person. Within these fields of experience, all learning types outlined above may appear. If the field of experience is arranged by a third person, the type of learning will mainly be extensional. Normally, the learner is not aware of the learning process. However, it can also be arranged in a way that intensional learning is initiated. The same holds true for functional learning. In the fields of experience such as the school lunch/meals, functional learning is fostered through repetition and homogeneity. The major advantage of such fields of experience thus is, all types of learning are getting addressed.
The higher the amount of pedagogical valencies, the
bigger is the chance that learning takes place.
Pedagogical valencies include elementary
• physical
• acoustic
• visual
• spacial
• temporal
• communicative as well as
• social
experiences and perceptions.
Examples of such pedagogical valencies are:
• the physical and mental well-being
• to not feel pressed
• the perception of an aesthetic quality of the
environment
• to experience a low noise level
• to move in sufficiently big rooms
• the feeling of not being rushed (to have enough
time)
• the repetitive experience of a regular procedure in terms of a ritual
• to get inspired by varying tasks/actions
• to listen and to be able to express oneself
(Bohm 2010)
As it already came across quite clearly, pedagogical valencies cannot completely be listed. One needs to detect them and they need to be fostered if one wants to make use of them. In this respect, pedagogical fantasy is required. Furthermore, pedagogical valencies are shapeable and convertible; they can, in their characteristic, be assimilated to different environments.
It is also obvious that pedagogical valencies always need to be considered within their cultural context. Certain orientations as well as behavioral dispositions are
culture-bound and thus cannot be found in other cultural environments in the same way.
It is crucial to state that there are various and numerous pedagogical valencies immanent in pedagogical fields of experiences. On the contrary, there are the actual lessons or seminars in which a pedagogical valency is usually aimed at, the cognitive potential of creating incentives.
Considering other typical pedagogical situations such as parties or theatre plays, several pedagogical valencies are addressed in the first place.
4. Example: School meals
Using the example of school meals/lunch, I intend to show by example which pedagogical valencies are immanent in this pedagogical social environment.
It is due to a lack of time that the following remarks will merely focus on the listing of valencies but not on an elaboration or description of observations.
These valencies are the result of a long-standing research in more than 30 schools in 24 countries.
Category: Formation of habits
• Education for a moderate and restrained behavior.
• School meals as an opportunity to concentrate on the consumption of foods.
• Collaborative school meals as an opportunity to practice and abide by explicit and implicit rules.
Category: To acquire directed activities
• Fulfillment of tasks based on the division of labor to prepare the common meals.
• Perceive an operation within the workflow by serving the meals by individual students.
• Complete processing of an event by cleaning up and clearing the table after the consumption of foods.
• Taking over the economic aspect of school meals by operating a school kiosk independently.
Category: Ability to have table talks
• Acquire the ability to develop and direct topics for table talks.
• Observe and Abide by communication rules as a precondition for the learner-centered table talk.
• Teacher-centered table talk- to enlarge communication with teachers beyond lessons and to get the chance to extend one’s pedagogical relation with them.
Further pedagogical valencies:
• Safe handling of cutlery as a precondition to enjoy meals.
• To learn to realistically self-assess one’s intake of food (self service).
• Dealing with food products as a chance to increase one’s knowledge of individual ingredients.
• The opportunity for hygiene education (Bohm 2010).
It becomes clear that certain pedagogical valencies arise from their own situation, others, however, were
induced or increased by a certain arrangement (individual serving of foods to fellow students ...). Considering the latter case, one can definitely speak of extensional learning. The practice of rules and rituals can be called functional learning.
5. Conclusion
Learning is not a function of teaching. At the most, there is a rather loose linkage between them. Nevertheless, learning takes place all the time, even without didactics or professional educators. Learning is the foundation of human life and human development. Thereto, life long learning is the educational postulate. Neuro-scientific findings have newly fueled the reflection on learning processes as well as on the possibilities of teaching.
There is a consensus about the fact that teaching cannot guarantee learning. This ultimately means that even a good didactical training cannot force learning to take place. However, learning can be stimulated. One possibility is to have organized and systematic lessons. Within these lessons learning is organized in closed-off and highly structured environments.
Learning also takes place in social environments which have not been arranged beforehand. Still, this learning can be educationally valuable and wished-for and it may lead to similar or even equal outcomes as planned pedagogical practice.
A good possibility to allow such learning is the design of fields of experience which contain various and diverse pedagogical valencies. Since there is mainly functional and extensional learning taking place in these fields of experience, only a little or even no learning resistance is to be expected. Moreover, even intentional learning processes may be motivated.
This does not mean that planned and organized learning possibilities can be substituted with well arranged environments (this brings us back to Rousseau) but they offer a useful and pedagogically valuable addition to the institutionalized types of learning.
It can be assumed that learning effects are the more intense the more learning forms are addressed. Thus, a maximum of learning outcomes can be expected if institutionalized learning as typically taking place in lessons and seminars gets complemented and intensified by functional and extensional learning.
L i t e r a t u r e
1. Böhm, J. (2010): Pädagogische Valenzen schulspezifischen Geschehens im Umfeld des Unterrichts. Hamburg.
2. Göhlich, M./ Zirfas, J. (2007): Lernen. Ein pädagogischer Grundbegriff. Stuttgart.
3. Krüger, /Helsper, W.(2002): Einführung in Grundbegriffe und Grundfragen der Erziehungswissenschaft: Einführungskurs Erziehungswissenschaft.
4. Treml, A. (1999): Allgemeine Pädagogik: Grundlagen, Handlungsfelder und Perspektiven der Erziehung.
