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61водчику необходимо овладеть социокультурной компетенцией, основанной на определенном минимуме фоновых знаний национальных особенностей, реалий и понятий иностранных вооруженных сил, которые порой существуют только в языке оригинала и не имеют прямых терминологических соответствий в языке перевода [9, с. 40]. Недостаточные знания в области военного перевода, включая перевод оперативно-тактической и военно-технической терминологии, приводят к искажению явлений, описываемых в художественных фильмах и, как следствие, к донесению неверной информации до реципиента.
литература
1. Практический курс военного перевода второго иностранного языка. Английский язык: учебник / С. А. Степанов и др. М.: Изд-во Воен. ун-та, 2008. 200 с.
2. Бушев А. Б. Лингводидактика перевода военного термина // Армия и общество. 2009. № 3. С. 123-129.
3. шевчук В. н. Справочник военного переводчика / под ред. Е. Н. Ожогина. СПб.: Русь, 2016. 396 с.
4. нелюбин Л. Л., Дормидонтов А. А., Васильченко А. А. Учебник военного перевода (английский язык) / ред. Л. Л. Нелюбин. М.: Воениздат, 1981. 379 с.
5. швейцер А. Д. Перевод и лингвистика. М.: Наука, 1988. 415 с.
6. миньяр-Белоручев Р. к. Теория и методы перевода. М.: Московский лицей, 1996. 208 с.
7. комиссаров В. н. Современное переводоведение: учеб. пособие. М.: ЭТС, 2001. 424 с.
8. Бузаджи Д. м., Гусев В. В., Ланчиков В. к., Псурцев Д. В. Новый взгляд на классификацию переводческих ошибок. М.: Всероссийский центр перевода, 2009. 119 с.
9. Ахтамбаев Р. П. Особенности перевода художественных фильмов военной тематики // Индустрия перевода. 2014. № 1. С. 3-8.
УДК 81'25
А. Ю. Аристов, М. А. Карпова инверсия и ее перевод с английского языка на русский
A. Yu. Aristov, M. A. Karpova. Inversion and its Translation from English to Russian
Английский язык относят к группе аналитических языков, из чего следует, что для него характерен фиксированный порядок слов. Таким образом, отклонения от установленного порядка слов обычно служат для какой-то конкретной цели. Инверсия может быть связана с грамматическими причинами или использоваться как стилистическое средство для увеличения экспрес-
English is classified as an analytical language, which means that it has fixed word order. Therefore, deviations from traditional word order usually serve for a specific purpose. Inversion can be caused by grammatical reasons or be used as a stylistic device that increases expressiveness of the sentence. It is a challenging task for a translator to find the right way to keep this expressiveness while
Алексей Юрьевич Аристов — доцент Санкт-Петербургского университета технологий управления и экономики, кандидат филологических наук.
Мария Алексеевна Карпова — студент Санкт-Петербургского университета технологий управления и экономики.
© Аристов А. Ю., Карпова М. А., 2019
сивности предложения. Сохранение этой экспрессивности при переводе на русский язык является непростой задачей для переводчика, так как в русском языке инверсия не так значима, как в английском. Для выполнения этой задачи существуют различные приемы, которые мы рассмотрим в данной статье на примере романа Дж. Р. Р. Толкиена «Властелин колец».
ключевые слова: инверсия, порядок слов, перевод инверсии, перевод с английского языка на русский, виды инверсии.
контактные данные: 190103, Санкт-Петербург, Лермонтовский пр., д. 44, лит. А.
translating because in Russian language inversion is not equally noticeable. There are various techniques which we will discuss in this article using a novel by J.R.R. Tolkien "The Lord of the Rings" as an example.
Keywords: inversion, word order, translation of inversion, translation from English to Russian, types of inversion.
Contacts: Lermontovskiy Ave 44/A, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation, 190103.
The problems of translation have always been challenging. Nowadays, translators have computer technologies to help with some of them, but still translation requires thorough studying of all the peculiarities of the source and target languages to achieve the best results. This also means knowing the structure of the language. English and Russian languages are different in many aspects and a translator has to find ways to preserve the original message while translating. There are different techniques that can help with that because inversion in Russian language is different from inversion in English language. Inversion is an important topic because it is quite common in English language and is widely used as a stylistic device.
In this article we will consider the features of the inversion in the English narrative sentence and the ways of its translation into the Russian language, taking into account these features. Thus, the relevance of our research is explained by the wide use of inversion by the authors of modern works of fiction, and, in this regard, the need to create an adequate translation of these works. The purpose of this work is to study the functioning of the inverted word order in the English narrative sentence and the ways to transfer the inversion, taking into account its specific features, into the Russian language.
Syntactic structure of English language
Before we go into the subject of this article, inversion, we should clarify the questions concerning the position of English language among other languages according to its structure and word order. "Word order most often really refers to the order of sentence constituents, in fact, more precisely, to the order of sentence elements or grammatical relations" [1, p. 13].
From historic point of view, one of the interesting aspects of the Germanic and Romance languages is that some similarities can be seen in word order in their older stages, "namely a large number of clauses with subject-verb inversion, similar to what we find in present-day Germanic verb-second (V2) languages (V2 is a type of word order when the verb always has to be put into the second place in a sentence) such as Scandinavian and German" [2, p. 2]. As for the present-day situation, Norwegian and German, for instance, have kept the V2 structure, French and English, on the contrary, lost it and adopted the subject-verb-object (SVO) structure. Verb-second declines during Middle English period due to both external and internal factors.
When V2 order was lost inversion came into use, because it became a way of highlighting of individual constituents: the subject, the verb, or the preposed constituent [3, p. 31]. During the grammaticalisation process, the order of subject and verb in English language obtained the function of grammatical expression, working alongside with other devices such as prosody, morphological modification, or function words [3, p. 33].
There have always existed constructions in English language which have XVS structure, where S — subject, V — verb, and X — another sentence constituent. In other words, in all stages of the historical development of English language existed sentences in which the verb is placed after a sentence-initial constituent rather than a verb. However, the situation in modern English differs from the previous stages. Inversions have become a deviation from a norm only within a context of rigidified word order system, in other words they became known as marked constructions. Another factor was that "the emergence of do-periphrasis in the course of the history of the English language provided a structural prerequisite for the distinction of fully inverted as opposed to semi-inverted constructions" [3, p. 29].
The question of word order in English sentence is not trivial for any linguist or translator. English is fundamentally different from Russian in that it belongs to the group of analytical languages, while the Russian language is referred to as synthetic. Among the basic features of the analytical language are the following:
1) A small number of grammatical inflections (case endings of nouns, adjectives and pronouns, and personal endings of verbs);
2) Extensive use of prepositions to indicate relationships between objects and to relate words in a sentence;
3) Active use of word order to reflect grammatical relations: more or less fixed word order [4, c. 1].
That is, the order of words in the English language is much more rigid than in Russian, where in this sense a much greater freedom in the formulation of the sentence is permissible, without the risk of distortion of the original idea and the emergence of ambiguity. As already noted, this is due to the presence of a large number of inflections in the Russian language that indicates the function of each word in the sentence [5, c. 265].
Inversion phenomenon
Inversion is very common both in written and spoken English. "The term 'inversion' traditionally refers specifically to the appearance of the logical subject to the right of the main verb and its auxiliaries or, in the case of VP inversion, to the right of the auxiliary be" [6, p. 11]. This definition may be formulated differently: "An inversion is a sentence in which the logical subject appears in post-verbal position while some other, canonically post-verbal, constituent appears in clause initial position" [6, p. 11]. Inversion must not be confused with somewhat similar but different in nature constructions, such as subject-auxiliary, there-insertion, and quotation inversion [6, p. 157]. These constructions have been classified as inversion by some authors, however, others argue that they cannot be considered as inversion. We will talk about these constructions in detail later.
Inversion presumes that some constituent of the sentence (not a verb) is moved to the front of the clause and a subsequent of either Vs or AuxsV pattern follows (V — verb, s — subject, Aux — auxiliary verb). If there is moving of a constituent from its usual position, it is assumed that there is a natural word order in English language [3, p. 16].
Types of inversion
There are a wide range of classifications that are applied to the phenomenon of inversion. In this article the system described by H. Dorgeloh is used. First of all, full and partial inversion must be distinguished. In case of full inversion, the predicate goes before the subject, while with partial inversion only part of the predicate does so [7, с. 308].
Full inversion (FI). "Full inversion denotes all those constructions in which the subject follows all of its verb phrase, i.e. a full (= lexical) verb or copular be" [3, p. 23]. Five main types of full inversion may be distinguished based on the syntactic category by H. Dorgeloh:
1. AdvP-inversion. FI following an adverb or an adverbial phrase is referred to as AdvP-inversion.
Now is the time for us to get started.
2. PP-inversion. FI following an initial prepositional phrase is labelled PP-inversion.
With greater abilities should come greater responsibility.
3. VP-inversion. If the initial sentence constituent either consists of or is introduced by a present or past participle form of a verb, one can speak of a VP-inversion.
Gone are the days when investing more funds into science would solve ecological problems of the world.
4. AdjP-inversion. FI following a preposed adjective phrase is called AdjP-inver-sion. This category has a notable dominance of comparative and superlative forms, but simple forms, in that case frequently followed by a prepositional phrase, also occur.
Most frightening is citizens' willingness to vote for the people who has already failed them once.
5. NP-inversion: Finally, an NP-inversion type is established. Basically, one can speak of an NP-inversion in case of a fronted "characterisation", as opposed to an "identification", predicate. Syntactic evidence for an NP-inversion is the use of the indefinite article or no article in the sentence-initial NP.
An exception to this rule are the women, elderly people, and children, who are not considered to be dangerous. subject-auxiliary-inversion (sAI). "The subject of an SAI — or of a "subject-operator-inversion" — follows the first auxiliary of the verb phrase" [3, p. 26]. Four types of SAI constructions may be distinguished here by H. Dorgeloh, based on both semantic and syntactic grounds:
1. Pro-inversion: is defined by the fact that, following a pro-form that stands for an entire predicate or at least a substantial part of it, SAI introduces a subject that ends up in sentence-final position. This goes for sentences introduced by so, such, thus, and as, as well as for nor and neither when they do not function as negative additive adverbs.
Chocolate and candy, ice-cream and pancakes are not healthy food; nor are fries, burgers, and Coca-Cola.
2. Corr-inversion, which covers all SAI types in correlative constructions. To these belong clauses linked by so/such...that, more/-er/less...than, no sooner... than, the...the, not only...but also, if/as...so.
So noble was he in his heart that he forgave his enemies and offered them peace.
3. Add-inversion: Some of the above-named pro-forms, in particular nor and neither, also occur as additive adverbs.
Thus might the fate of the people be decided.
4. Neg-inversion: The final class of sentence-initial elements followed by SAI can best be grouped under a semantic heading. In particular, there is obligatory SAI after negative and restrictive adverbs such as only, scarcely, hardly, never, little, less and the like, as well as after negative direct object preposing. Neg-inversion is extended to apply to non-negative adverbs that optionally trigger SAI, i.e., to positive frequency, degree, and manner adverbs. Instances are often, well, or truly.
Not a single tree did we see during our trip. Now that we have established the classification of the types of inversion, we can discuss its usage.
Functions of inversion
Inversion may be used for different reasons or purposes. Therefore, it is necessary to mention its functions. First of all, inversion may be purely grammatical, without the purpose of emphasis or stylistic effect. Some scientists do not even consider those grammatical constructions as inversions, because they exist due to the structure of the language. However, we are going to enumerate those cases before we look at the stylistic inversion. The classification is given according to Kobrina.
1. Inversion may be used to distinguish between the communicative types of sentences. It is employed with this function in the following cases:
a) General questions, polite requests, tag questions. Here are some examples: Is that right?
Won't you have a glass of juice? You are coming with us, aren't you?
b) Pronominal questions, except questions to the subject and its attribute, where direct word order is used.
What are the police after?
c) There-sentences with the introductory non-local there, followed by one of the verbs denoting existence, movement, or change of the situation. There is nobody in the room.
There comes the head of the security.
d) Exclamatory sentences expressing wish, despair, indignation, or other strong emotions.
Come what may!
e) Exclamatory sentences which are negative in form but positive in meaning. Have I not been there! (= I have been there)
Wouldn't that be great! (= That would be great)
f) Negative imperative sentences. Don't even think about it!
2. Inversion is used as a grammatical means of subordination in some complex sentences joined without connectors:
a) In conditional clauses.
Were you there, you wouldn't ask for anyone's permission and you know it.
b) In concessive clauses.
Arrogant as he was, he had to admit that he had been wrong in this case.
c) In the second part of a sentence of proportional agreement. The more she thought of this, the less clear was the situation.
3. Inversion is used in sentences beginning with adverbs of place. Here is your cat.
4. Inversion is used in stage directions. Enter the prince and the knight.
5. Inversion may be used in cases of direct or indirect speech. 'She is the mysterious thief!' cried Mary.
6. Inversion is used in statements showing that the remark applies equally to someone or something else.
I am sick of his games! — So am I.
Another function of inversion may be "to place relatively familiar information in preposed position in order to facilitate the processing of the newer information in terms of the older information, inversion can be seen as performing a linking function" [3, p. 172].
Now we come to the stylistic function of inversion. "Function of word order is to make prominent or emphatic that part of the sentence which is more important or informative in the speaker's opinion. These two functions (to express prominence or information focus and emphasis) are different in their purpose, but in many cases they go together or overlap, and are difficult to differentiate" [7, с. 310]. The effect of prominence or emphasis is achieved by unusual placement of the word: words, that a usually go at the beginning of a sentence (for example, the subject) are placed in the end, while words that normally have positions in the end of the sentence (objects and predicatives) are moved to the beginning [Там же].
For the subject the end position is always emphatic. The placement of the subject in the end of the sentence may very often result in its detachment. Front position of a predicative or an object also may lead to detachment. In case of a prepositional object, the preposition might be put after the verb or verb-group, in some cases even after the whole sentence. We can name the front position as emphatic for adverbials as well (of manner, time, degree) [Там же].
Ways of translating inversion from english into Russian
As we have already established before, inversion may be grammatical or stylistic. When we talk about translating techniques, inversion stylistic inversion is meant. Inversion is considered to be one of the most common ways of creating an emphasis in English language, therefore it is extremely important for a translator to understand how to treat inversion. The difficulty that complicates that matter is that in Russian language inversion is not such an important stylistic device, that is why inversion in English must be compensated with something else when translated in Russian [8, с. 99].
If we talk about fiction literature, then, without a doubt, it is impossible to ignore how the author builds his sentences in the text, the grammatical and stylistic aspects of this process are of particular interest. One of the features of this style of literature is inversion. Its particular emotionally-expressive character it acquires in fiction. If there is a need to translate a work of fiction from the source language into the target language, the specialist always has to find a way of adequate transfer of the sentence with the inverted word order into the target language. In order to make an adequate translation, the translator must recognize and take into account the function that the inversion carries, or rather, the function that the author of the original work gave to the inversion. Inversion changes the logical order of words in a sentence, it gives meaning to the sentence with a new shade, a new emotional colour [9, с. 121].
Depending on the functions performed by inversion, the features and methods of its translation are distinguished. It can be said that grammatical inversion is quite common in works of fiction in English. However, in the vast majority of cases it does not present any particular difficulties in translation. As a rule, the main translation strategy in this case is to preserve the syntactic norms of the target language.
So, the inverted word order plays within the work of fiction, of course, an important role. With this technique, the author manages to achieve a certain effect. At the same time, the translator has to recognize the intention of the author of the text in time and, if possible, preserve the inherent stylistic effect. Thus, in some cases, translators retain the inverted word order of the original. But often the transfer of the syntactic structure of the original without transformation is not possible, as it will violate the language norms of the Russian language. In this case, translators use different grammatical transformations.
Linguistic transformations
The main goal of translation is to achieve adequacy. An adequate translation is a translation which fulfils pragmatic tasks of the translation act on the maximum possible level to achieve equivalence, not permitting violations of the rules or usage of the target language, following the genre-stylistic requirements for the texts of this type and the corresponding public-accepted conventional norm of translation. Generally speaking, "adequate translation" is a "good" translation that meets the expectations of those who evaluate the quality of the translation [10, с. 13]. We must distinguish between the concepts of equivalence and adequacy. V. N. Komissarov, A. D. Schweitzer, A. Parshin distinguish different levels of equivalence, believing that an adequate translation implies a certain (corresponding to a specific case) level of equivalence, while the equivalent translation is not always adequate.
In addition, we should not forget that any hierarchy of equivalence levels is always relative, because the degree of similarity with the original depends on such factors as: skills of the translator, peculiarities of the languages and cultures, character and genre of the translated texts, etc. [11, с. 102]. But in some cases the term "adequacy" is interpreted interchangeably with the term "equivalence". Adequate translation is considered to be a "good" translation, that provides full and high-quality inter-lingual communication in specific conditions, while the term equivalence is described as equivalent language units and semantic generality of presentation [10, с. 234]. There is a theory proposed by A. Neubert, developed by A. Schweitzer. А. Neubert proposed to consider the original and translated text in terms of complex signs [12, p. 127-132]. The ratio of the original and the translation is considered from the position of semiotics as the ratio of complex signs. In semiotics a sign has three types of relations:
1. Sign and the signification (semantics of the sign);
2. Sign and other sign (sign syntactics);
3. Sign and sign user (sign pragmatics).
On this basis can be respectively distinguished three types of equivalence according to classification of Schweitzer:
1. Equivalence at the syntactic level (the syntactic relations between the exponents of the signs of the original and the translation are preserved. In this case, the characters themselves are replaced in the translation). The door opened and a tall man entered the room. — Дверь открылась, и высокий мужчина вошел в комнату.
2. Equivalence at the semantic level (at this level, both the signs themselves and the syntactic relations between their exponents change):
You are not welcome. — Тебе не рады.
3. Equivalence at the pragmatic level (in order to preserve the purpose of communication, the translator has to sacrifice semantics for the sake of pragmatics in some parts of the text. This type includes translations of all clichés, set phrases and idiomatic expressions):
Watch out! — Осторожно!
However, V. N. Komissarov formulated the theory of equivalence levels, according to which the equivalence relations between the corresponding levels of the original and the translation are established in the translation process. He distinguished the following levels in terms of the content of the original and the translation:
1. Level of purpose of communication;
2. Level of description of the situation;
3. Lever of an utterance;
4. Level of a message;
5. Level of linguistic signs [10, с. 53].
Also, V. N. Komissarov notes that the main task of the translator in achieving adequacy is to skillfully make various translation transformations, so that the text of the translation as accurately as possible conveys all the information contained in the original text, following the rules of the target language [Там же]. According to A. Schweitzer, the term "transformation" is used in translation studies in a metaphorical sense. In fact, we are talking about the relationship between the original and the final language expressions, about the replacement in the process of translation of one form of the expression to another, substitution, which we figuratively call transformation. Thus, the following operations (translation transformations) are essentially inter-linguistic operations of rephrasing [13, с. 118].
V. N. Komissarov classifies translation transformations into:
1. Lexical;
2. Grammatical;
3. Lexical-grammatical.
He refers to substitutions as the most common grammatical transformations, the most common and diverse type of translation transformation. During the process of translation, grammatical units (forms of words, parts of speech, sentence members, types of syntactic connection, etc.) can be replaced. But also the whole structure can be replaced (the so-called complex lexical and grammatical substitutions):
1. substitutions of word forms (substitution of the category of number, gender, time);
2. substitution of parts of speech (such substitutions are usually caused by different word usage and different norms, and in some cases — absence of a part of speech with the corresponding meaning):
He had one of those very piercing whistles that was practically never in tune. — Свистел он ужасно пронзительно и всегда фальшиво (J. Salinger, The Catcher in The Rye)
3. substitution of the sentence members (the restructuring of the syntactic structure of the sentence):
The crash killed 20 people. — В результате аварии погибло 20 человек.
4. syntactical substitutions in a complex sentence (substitution of a simple sentence with a complex one; substitution of a complex sentence with a simple one; substitution of a syndetic type connection with an asyndetic one and vice versa) [10, с. 42].
Schweitzer offers to divide transformations into four groups:
1. Transformations at the component level of semantic valence (substitution of morphological means by lexical, other morphological, syntactic or phraseological means and others).
2. Transformations at the pragmatic level consist of such techniques as: compensation, substitution of certain stylistic means.
3. Transformations carried out on the referential level. This can be specification, generalization, substitution of the realities, and also remetaphorization, meto-nymic transformation, demetaphorization. This also includes one or another combination of these transformations.
4. Transformation at the stylistic level [13, с. 189-203].
Grammatical characteristics of language units consist of linguistic phenomena (word form, phrases, sentences, order of elements, grammatical meanings of forms). When translating, analysing a particular language unit, it is necessary to clearly understand that an important point is the lexical and semantic meaning of words, their combination, and their grammatical qualities, which can significantly affect the order of the translated text. It should not be forgotten that the distinction and similarity between grammatical forms, their functions and meanings may be complete and incomplete. Complete similarity is usually quite rare, as is a complete, uncompensated difference. Therefore, one of the main tasks in the translation is the degree of need for compensation and the nature of compensation in the translation of grammatical forms [10, с. 185].
Analysis of sentences with inversion from a novel by J.R.R. Tolkien "The Lord of the Rings"
We have already established types of inversion and some ways to translate it, including different types of linguistic transformations. Now let us see some examples. The sentences for analysis were taken from a novel by J. R. R. Tolkien "The Lord of the Rings". The translation of the taken sentences belongs to N. V. Grigoryeva and V. I. Grushetskiy.
1. Fierce and shrill rose the yells of the Orcs, and suddenly the horn-calls ceased. [14]
Вопли орков перешли в яростный визг, звук рога вдруг оборвался. [15]
In this sentence we can see inversion, that has an emphatic meaning, giving emphasis to the attribute "fierce and shrill". The translator chose to use direct word order without any compensation.
2. Vain was Gandalf's trust in me.
Напрасно, Гэндальф, ты понадеялся на меня.
Here is another sentence where the attribute is in the initial position. There is no inversion in the Russian sentence, however, some transformations were made — subject of the translated sentence is different, attribute "vain" became adverb "напрасно", subject "trust" became a verb. So, we can say that grammatical transformation is used in this case.
3. Among the slain are none of the great Orcs with the strange badges. Среди них нет больших орков с гербами Сарумана.
This sentence presents a case of inversion when the adverbial modifier is in the initial position. Russian translation follows the syntactic structure of the original one, so the inversion is preserved without any additional transformations.
4. Not yet does my road lie southward to your bright streams.
А пока — не судьба мне повидать твои сверкающие реки...
This sentence is an example of subject-auxiliary-inversion. The inverted word order is lost in translation but the adverbial modifier preserved its initial position and is separated with a dash from the rest of the sentence which makes it more emphatic.
5. Not idly do the leaves of Lorien fall.
Не напрасно падают листья в Лориене.
Here again we come across SAI-inversion. The syntactic structure of the sentence was changed to keep the inverted word order — the verb "fall" was moved in the position before the subject. No additional transformations were made.
6. Seldom will Orcs journey in the open under the sun, yet these have done so.
Орки избегают солнца, а тут они мчались под ним целый день.
The adverbial modifier is in the initial position here which makes it prominent. It is lost in the translation but the second part of the translated sentence is more emotional than the original one because of such words as "мчались" that substitutes the neutral verb "journey".
7. Yellow is their hair, and bright are their spears.
Вооружены копьями. Светловолосые.
In case of this sentence inversion is not preserved in the translation. The syntactic structure is also completely different. The original complex sentence was split in two and the subjects were lost.
8. Faint and far are the feet of our enemies. But loud are the hoofs of the horses.
Орки далеко, их едва слышно. Куда громче топот копыт.
In this translation parallelism of stylistic structures of these two sentences is lost.
9. Nothing can we see to guide us here.
Тьма такая, что шагу не ступить.
In this case inversion is not preserved, and neither is the syntactic structure or the lexical component. The equivalence is achieved on the communicative level.
10. Halt we must once more.
Хотя остановиться все-таки придется.
The translation does not contain inversion and lost the subject, but the emphatic effect is compensated by use of the words "хотя" and "все-таки" that create certain emotional attitude of the speaker to the information.
Conclusions
In this article we have discussed questions of syntactic structure of English and Russian languages. We have established that English became an analytical language in course of history and developed rigid word order. This rigid word order is the cause of importance of inversion in English language, because without fixed sentence structure there is no contrast between direct and inverted word order. Inversion can be purely grammatical or it can be a stylistic device that helps to emphasize certain words in a sentence.
Russian language does not have fixed word order, so inversion is a challenging thing for a translator because it cannot be translated directly. We have discussed different linguistic transformations that can compensate the difference between the source and target languages and keep the effect that is originally created by the inverted word order. It is the task of the translator to establish the features and function of the inversion in each particular sentence and find the best equivalent for it. Linguistic transformations can be made on different levels — grammatical or lexical, if the communicative function of the sentence is preserved, the translation can be considered adequate.
We have analysed some examples which showed that each sentence with inversion was translated using different techniques, some of the translations can be considered adequate while others are not. Each sentence is unique and while there are certain ways for a translator to treat inversion every situation requires individual approach.
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