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23MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
INTERVAL EDGE-COLORING OF EVEN BLOCK GRAPHS
Sahakyan A.,
Ph.D. Student, Chair of Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Informatics, Faculty of Informatics and Applied Mathematics, Yerevan State University, Armenia
Muradyan L.
Master's Student, Chair of Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Informatics, Faculty of Informatics and Applied Mathematics, Yerevan State University, Armenia
Abstract
An edge-coloring of a graph G with consecutive integers c1, ...,ct is called an interval t-coloring, if all colors are used, and the colors of edges incident to any vertex of G are distinct and form an interval of integers. A graph G is interval colorable, if it has an interval t-coloring for some positive integer t. For an interval colorable graph G, w(G) denotes the smallest value of t for which G has an interval t-coloring. A block graph is a type of graph in which every biconnected component (block) is a clique. Even block graphs are a subclass of block graphs where each block has an even number of vertices. In this paper we show that any even block graph has an interval edge-coloring with w(G) < 2 ■ (A(G) — 1). Furthermore, we show that this upper bound can not be improved for even block graphs.
Keywords: block graph, interval t-coloring, interval edge-coloring, even block graph
Introduction
All graphs considered in this paper are undirected (unless explicitly said), finite, and have no loops or multiple edges. For an undirected graph G, let V(G) and E(G) denote the sets of vertices and edges of G, respectively. The degree of a vertex v £ V(G) is denoted by dc (v). Let T be a tree (a connected undirected acyclic graph). Let dT (u, v) be the length of the path from the vertex u to the vertex v. Since T is a tree, there is exactly one path connecting two vertices.
For a directed graph G if there is an edge from a vertex u to a vertex v we will denote it as u ^ v. The graph G is called the underlying graph of a directed graph G if V(G) = V(G) and E(G) = {G\iff u^ v or v ^ u} (between any pair of vertices u and v, if the directed graph has an edge u^ v or an edge v ^ u, the underlying graph includes the edge (u, v)).
For a tree T and a vertex r, let Tr be the directed graph whose underlying graph is T and in Tr each edge is directed in such a way that for each vertex v £ V(Tr) there is a path in Tr from r to v. We will say that Tr is a rooted tree with a root r. Fig. 1 illustrates the rooted tree Tv± with the root v1.
Let Tr be a rooted tree, the depth of a vertex v, denoted by h(v), is the length of the unique path from the root r to the vertex v. A vertex u is said to be the parent of the vertex v, denoted by p(v), if u ^ v. In that case the vertex v is said to be a child of the vertex u. The children of a vertex v £ V(Tr) are the set W £ V(Tr) of all vertices w of the tree Tr satisfying the condition v ^ w. A vertex having no children is said to be a leaf vertex. Non-root two vertices a,b £ V(Tr) are said to be sibling vertices if p(a) = p(b). For a vertex v let S(v) be the subtree induced by all the vertices w such that there is a path from v to w in Tr [1].
Fig. 1. A rooted tree Tv with the root v-
A cut vertex is any vertex whose removal increases the number of connected components. Any connected graph decomposes into a tree of biconnected components called the block-cut tree of the graph. A
block graph is a type of graph in which every biconnected component (block) is a clique (every two distinct vertices in the clique are adjacent). Fig. 2 illustrates an example of a block graph and its respective block-cut tree.
Fig. 2. Block graph on the left and its respective block-cut tree on the right. Even block graphs are a subclass of block graphs where each block has an even number of vertices.
Fig. 3. An example of an even block graph. Each block is a clique with an even number of vertices.
An edge-coloring of a graph G is an assignment of colors to the edges of the graph so that no two adjacent edges have the same color. An edge-coloring of a graph G with colors 1, ...,t is an interval t-coloring if all colors are used, and the colors of edges incident to each vertex of G form an interval of integers. A graph G is interval colorable if it has an interval t-coloring for some positive integer t. The set of all interval colorable graphs is denoted by The concept of an interval edge-coloring of a graph was introduced by Asratian and Kamalian [2]. This means that an interval t-color-ing is a function a: E(G) ^ {1,..., t} such that for each edge e the color a(e) of that edge is an integer from 1 to t, for each color from 1 to t there is an edge with that color and for each vertex v all the edges incident to v have different colors forming an interval of integers. The set of integers {a, a + 1,... ,b}, a < b, is denoted by [a, b]. Let Ik be the set [1, k] of integers, then 2'k is the set of all the subsets of Ik. We will denote by T(Ik) the set of all the elements from 2'k that are an interval of integers. More formally tQk) = {s:s E 2'k, s is a non empty interval of integers}.
For an interval coloring, a and a vertex v, the set of all the colors of the incident edges of v is called the
spectrum of that vertex in a and is denoted by Sa(v). The smallest and the largest numbers in Sa(v) are denoted by Sa(v) and Sa(v), respectively.
Interval edge-colorings have been intensively studied in different papers. In [3] it was shown that every tree is from Lower and upper bounds on the number of colors in interval edge-colorings were provided in [4] and the bounds were improved for different graphs: planar graphs [5], r-regular graphs with at least 2 -r + 2 vertices [6], cycles, trees, complete bipartite graphs [3], n-dimensional cubes [7,8], complete graphs [9, 10], Harary graphs [11], complete k-partite graphs [12]. In [13], interval edge-colorings with restrictions were considered, in which case there can be restrictions on the edges for the allowed colors.
Interval edge-coloring of even block graphs Here we consider the following two problems for even block graphs.
Problem 1: Interval edge-coloring Given a graph G. Find any interval edge-coloring. More formally, find an edge-coloring a:E(G) ^ N such that for each vertex v all the edges incident to v have different colors forming an interval of integers.
Problem 2: Interval edge-coloring with minimal colors
Given a graph G. Find the minimal t for which there is an interval t-coloring. More formally, find an edge-coloring a\E(G) ^ [1, t] (with minimal t)such that for each color from 1 to t, there is an edge with that color, and for each vertex v all the edges incident to v have different colors forming an interval of integers.
First, we will solve the Problem 1 for even block graphs by providing an upper bound for w(G). Then we will show that the upper bound can not be improved. This way, we will get close to the solution of the Problem 2 for even block graphs.
It is known that all trees have interval edge-coloring. A complete graph Kn has an interval edge-coloring if and only if n is even. The class of even block graphs contains the class of even complete graphs and the class of trees (since every block in a tree is an edge and contains two vertices). Let us first show how to color the edges of a complete graph to have an interval edge coloring.
Lemma 1: For a complete graph K2.m, and for any positive integers I, r with I < r and r — I + 1 = 2 -m — 1, there is an interval edge-coloring a such that Sa(v) = [l,r] for all vEV(K2.m).
Let N = 2 - m. From [4] it is known that w(K2.m) = 2 - m — 1 = A(K2-m). It means there is an interval t-coloring with t = 2 - m — 1. Adding 1 — 1 to all the edges of an interval t-coloring will produce an interval edge-coloring with colors from I to I + (2 - m — 1) — 1 = r. When it comes to the coloring, assume the vertices are labeled from 1 to N. Coloring the edge (i,j),1 < i,j < N with the color I + ((i + j)%(N — 1)
will ensure that all the spectrums are [I, r].
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Unlike complete graphs, it is not true that if a block graph has a block with an odd number of vertices, then it does not have interval edge-coloring. Fig. 4 illustrates such a counterexample.
Fig. 4. An example of a block graph that has interval edge-coloring.
We will show that every even block graph has an interval edge-coloring.
Theorem 1: Every even block graph G has an interval edge-coloring. Furthermore w(G) < 2 -(A(G) — 1) when A(G) > 2.
If the graph G is a complete graph with an even number of vertices, then from Lemma 1 w(G) = A(G). When A(G) >2, 2- (A(G) — 1) > A(G) hence the statement is valid.
We can assume that G is not a complete graph. It means the graph G has at least one cut vertex. Let t = 2 - (A(G) — 1). Let r be an arbitrary cut vertex and consider the rooted block-cut tree Tr of the graph G. We will provide a top-down approach for coloring the graph edges. For the cut vertices of the block-cut tree, we will color the edges of that vertex and all the blocks to which it belongs. Every block B of the graph G will be colored with some [I, r] interval r — 1 + 1 = |7(£)| — 1. Since all the blocks have even number of vertices, from Lemma 1 it is possible to have such interval edge-coloring. At every point, the colored edges will form an interval of integers for every vertex (even if some of the edges for that vertex are not colored yet). For a block vertex v E V(Tr), let B(v) be the block of the graph G.
For the vertex r we can color its incident edges with the colors from 1 to dG(r). Let u1, ...,uk (k = dTr(r)) be the child vertices of r in Tr. Since r is a cut vertex, B(u1), ...,B(uk) are the blocks containing the vertex r. Let st = lv(B(ui))l — 1 for 1 < i < k. If we
color the block B(u1) with colors [LsJ, the block B(u2) with colors [s1 + 1,s1 + s2], ... , the block B(uk) with colors [s1 + s2 + —+ sk-1 + + s2 + —+ sfc] using the Lemma 1 then the spectrum of the vertex r will be the interval [1, dc (r)] and all the block that contain the vertex r will have an interval edge-coloring.
Now consider any non-root vertex v E V(Tr). The vertex v is either a cut vertex or a block vertex in Tr.
If the vertex v is a cut vertex, then its parent vertex p(v) is a block vertex. Since we already colored the edges of the block B(p(v)), the colors of the edges incident to v that belong to that block form an interval of integers. The length of the interval is equal to a =
— 1 and assume it is the interval [l,r], (r — I + 1 = a,[l,r] c [1, t]. Since v is a cut vertex, it belongs to more than one block, which means it has edges that do not belong to the block B(p(v)), hence 1<a< A(G) — 1.
Now we need to color the rest of the edges incident to v so that each of the blocks that contain the vertex v are colored with intervals. Let u1,.,uk be the child vertices of v and let B(u1), ...,B(uk) be their respective blocks. Let Si = |7(£(u;))| — 1 which is the number of edges from the block B (ui) incident to the vertex v. Let b = Y!t=1 Si then
a +
b = |K(ß(p(v)))|
1+
tf=1(lv(B(ui))l-1) = dG(v)<A(G).
Assume that we can find an interval [c, d] c [1, t] of length b such [c, d] n [I, r] = 0 and [c, d] U [I, r] £ T(It). Then the vertex v would be colored with interval of integers and we could take the interval [c, d] and split it into smaller intervals of lengths s1,.,sk to color the blocks corresponding to the children of v. Using the Lemma 1, the block B(-u1) could be colored with colors [c,c + s1 — 1], the block B(u2) with colors [c + s^c + s1 + s2 — 1], ..., the block B(uk) with colors [c + s1 + —+ sk-1, c + s1 —+ sk — 1] = [d — sk + 1, d] since b = Ylk=1 si .
Now let us show that we can always find such [c, d] interval. If I — b>1 then [c, d] = [I — b,l — 1]. If I < b we need to show that r + b < t in which case we could take [c,d] = [r + 1,r + b]. Since 1 < a < A(G) — 1 and a + b < A(G) we have 1<b < A(G) — 1.
r+b=l+a—1+b<b+a—1+b and we know that a + b < A(G), b < A(G) — 1 we can get b + a —1 + b < A(G) — 1+ A(G) — 1 = t.
The intuition is that as long as is greater or equal than 2 ■ (b — 1) + a + 1we can always find an interval of length b to the left or the right of any given interval
that has length a. The maximal value will be achieved if a = 1,b = A(G) — 1 in which case we get 2 ■ (A(G) — 2)+ 2.
If the vertex v is a block vertex, then we already know how the edges of the block B (v) are colored since the parent vertex p(v) is a cut vertex. Using the fact that B(v) has even number of vertices and is a clique we colored with some colors [ , ] such that — +
1 = |v(B(v))| — 1 using the Lemma 1. We can continue coloring the children cut vertices of the vertex v.
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Theorem 2. For every even integer m there exist an even block graph G with A( G) = m for which (G) >
2 ■ (m — 1) .
Let m = 2 ■ k be an even integer. Whenm = 2 we have 2 ■ (m — 1) = 2 = m and since we should have A( G) = m and it is known that w(G) > A(G) the statement is obvious for this case. We can assume m> 4 in which case 2 ■ (m — 2) + 1 > m + 1.
We need to construct an even block graph G such that A( G) = m and there is no interval edge-color with 2 ■ (m — 2) + 1 colors. Consider the graph illustrated in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. An even block graph where the vertex r is connected to the vertices vt,..., vm. Each of the vertices v1 ...,vm are inside blocks that are cliques having m vertices.
In that graph, there is a root vertex that is connected to m vertices v1,.,vm and each of these m vertices belong to a clique Ci each of which has m vertices. The constructed graph has m2 + 1 vertices. Let = 2 ■ (m — 2) + 1 and suppose there is an interval edge-coloring a such that all the colors are from 1 to t. The colors of the edges (r, v1),..., (r, vm) form an interval of integers [a, b] with length m (b — a + 1 = m).
Consider the color m — 1 which is the middle color of the interval [1, t]. Since [a,b] c [1, t] (t > m + 1) it means b >m and a <t — m + 1 = m — 2
which means the color m — 1 £ [a,b]. Let vi be the vertex for which a(r,vi) = m — 1 and consider the clique Ci that contains the vertex vi. If we take the edges of the clique that have color m — 1, they will form a matching and will not contain the vertex vi, since it is already connected to the vertex with the color m — 1. Since \^(Ci)\ = m = 2 ■ k there is a vertex u £ V(Ci) which does not have an incident edge with color m — 1. Fig. 6 illustrates that case.
Fig. 6. The edges of a clique containing the vertex vi having color m — 1. There is a vertex u that does not have
an incident edge with color m — 1.
For the vertex u, dG(u) = m — 1 and the spectrum Sa(u) = [c,d] has length m — 1 (c — d + 1 = m — 1). This means that either c >m or d <m — 2. If c >m then d>m + (m — 1) — 1 = 2^(m — 1)> t+1 which is a contradiction. If d <m — 2 then c < d — (m — 1) + 1 = 0 which is a contradiction. This means there is no interval edge-coloring with = 2 ■ (m — 2) + 1 colors hence w(G) > 2 ■ (m — 1).
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Corollary: If G is an even block graph then w(G) < 2 ■ (A(G) — 1) and the inequality can not be improved for the class of even block graphs.
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