CC BY
14
practico nationalo, 2015, UCCM, Chisinou. pp.7-10. URL : http://www.uccm.md/ro/images/stories/2015/manif-stiinte/19-10-2015/ CONFERINTA-TUHARI-2.pdf last accessed 2018/02/04
17. Turcanu, V., Golocialova, I., 2016. Contabilitatea in Republica Moldova intre IFRS si Directivele UE/ Culegere de articole selective: [vol. 4]. Chisinou: ASEM, 2016. pp.200-206. URL : http://www.ase.md/ro/publicatii-electronice.html last accessed 2018/02/17
18. Turcanu, V., Golocialova, I. Functionalitatea contabilitotii in Republica Moldova timp de 25 ani. Culegere de articole selective. Chisinou: 2017 (Tipogr. "Arva Color"), pp.10-15. URL : http://ase.md/ro/facultatea/ contabilitate/catedra/cae/activitatea-stiintifica.html last accessed 2018/02/16
19. Zasadnyi B., 2016. The Current State of Application of International Financial Reporting Standards in Ukraine. Bulletin of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. Economics, 2016; 9(186): 22-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17721/1728-2667.2016/186-9Z3 http://bulletin-econom.univ.kiev.ua/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/186.pdf
Л. Григорой, д-р фшософм, Н. Мунтян, д-р фшософм
Академт економтних досл1джень Молдови, Кишижв, Молдова
ДОСВ1Д РЕСПУБЛ1КИ МОЛДОВА В РЕФОРМУВАНН1 СИСТЕМИ БУХГАЛТЕРСЬКОГО ОБЛ1КУ I II ГАРМОН1ЗАЦ1Я З МСФЗ ТА ДИРЕКТИВАМИ ее
Реформування системи бухгалтерского облiку в Республiцi Молдова та ii гармотзащя з МСФЗ та европейськими директивами тривае майже три десятилття i являе собою складний технiчний шлях, в якому задiяно важливi ф/'нансов/' та людськ ресурси. У цй статтi поставлено за мету представити i проаналiзувати, яким чином була проведена реформа системи бухгалтерского облiку, як мiжнароднi стандарти бухгалтерского облiку та европейськ директиви були перенесенi в нацональне законодавство для визначення основних хвиль реформи бухгалтерского облiку та регуляторних змiн, що вносяться регулюючим органом, виграшi i втрати, переваги i недолши, що виникли внаслiдок реалiзацii реформованоУ нормативно-правовоУ бази. Вiдповiдi на ц запитання отримано шляхом застосування як методу дослiдження феноменологiчного /нтерпретац/'йного аналiзу, документального та аналтичного вивчення, зс-тавлення думки й аналiзу i по сутi являють собою яксне емтричне дослiдження. Результати та висновки дослiдження послужать основою й уроками для майбутн х реформ. Знання минулого створюе майбутне.
Ключовi слова: реформа бухгалтерського облiку, бухгалтерський обл iк, нацiональнi стандарти бухгалтерського облiку, МСФЗ, бух-галтерська директива.
Л. Григорой, д-р философии, Н. Мунтян, д-р философии
Академия экономических исследований Молдовы, Кишинев, Молдова
ОПЫТ РЕСПУБЛИКИ МОЛДОВА В РЕФОРМИРОВАНИИ СИСТЕМЫ БУХГАЛТЕРСКОГО УЧЕТА И ЕЕ ГАРМОНИЗАЦИЯ С МСФО И ЕВРОПЕЙСКИМИ ДИРЕКТИВАМИ
Реформирование системы бухгалтерского учета в Республике Молдова и ее гармонизация с МСФО и европейскими директивами длится почти три десятилетия и представляет собой сложный технический путь, в котором задействованы важные финансовые и человеческие ресурсы. В этой статье поставлена цель представить и проанализировать, каким образом была проведена реформа системы бухгалтерского учета, как международные стандарты бухгалтерского учета и европейские директивы были перенесены в национальное законодательство для определения основных волн реформы бухгалтерского учета и регуляторных изменений, вносимых регулирующим органом, выигрыши и потери, преимущества и недостатки, возникшие в результате реализации реформированной нормативно-правовой базы. Ответы на эти вопросы получены путем применения в качестве метода исследования феноменологического интерпретационного анализа, документального и аналитического изучения, сопоставления мнения и анализа и по сути являют собой качественное эмпирическое исследование. Результаты и выводы исследования послужат основой и уроками для будущих реформ. Знание прошлого создает будущее.
Ключевые слова: реформа бухгалтерского учета, бухгалтерский учет, национальные стандарты бухгалтерского учета, МСФО, бухгалтерская директива.
20. Zlatina, N. Manoli, M., 2015. Rationamentul profesional al practicismului contabil. În: Oportunitoti de dezvoltare a contabilitotii, auditului sifinantelor aliniate noilor reglementori contabile. Conferinta stiintifico-practico nationalo, 2015, UCCM, Chisinou. pp.24-29. URL : http://www.uccm.md/ro/images/stories/2015/manif-stiinte/19-10-2015/CONFERINTA-TUHARI-2.pdf last accessed 2018/02/04
Received: 26/06/2018 1st Revision: 20/08/18 Accepted: 10/09/2018
Author's declaration on the sources of funding of research presented in the scientific article or of the preparation of the scientific article: budget of university's scientific project
Bulletin of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. Economics, 2018; 6(201): 64-71 УДК 457
JEL classification: C38, D73, H11, H26, O17
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17721/1728-2667.2018/201-6/10
A.-O. ^доЬ^а, Doctor of Sciences (Economics), Associate Рrofessor
ORCID iD 0000-0003-3318-6895, G.C. Mursa, Doctor of Sciences (Economics), Professor ORCID iD 0000-0002-6619-5416 Alexandru loan Cuza University of lasi, lasi, Romania
INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH TAX MORALE: A COUNTRY GROUP-LEVEL ANALYSIS
A growing literature coming from economics, sociology or psychology explores the wide range of variables that might explain voluntary compliance behaviour. The aim of this paper is to identify the institutional factors associated with tax morale and to highlight the resemblances and the differences among several countries across the world, grouped according to the level of development. Descriptive statistics and principal components analysis are used as methods and the analysis is carried out at country group level. The main results show that no matter the level of development, people' intrinsic motivation to pay taxes can be associated with good institutions and government ability to efficiently allocate public funds.
Keywords: tax morale, stage of development, institutions, government, corruption, principal components analysis.
Introduction. People pay taxes because they are forced to comply with regulations and sanctioned for noncompliance but also due to a sense of moral obligation, of
duty or of guilt. From this last perspective, the existing literature considers tax compliance as a complex behavioural issue [1], tax morale being an important
© Iacobut6 A.-O., Mursa G.C., 2018
component of tax compliance decision. Studies point out significant correlation between tax morale and tax compliance in developing and developed countries [2].
Tax morale is defined as "the motivation of a country's citizens to paying taxes, in addition to legal obligations" [2, p. 9] or, in other words, as "the intrinsic motivation to pay taxes" [11, p. 1]. Tax morale has an important role for economic development due to its association with shadow economy: a higher tax morale is proven to lead to a smaller shadow economy [12].
The wide range of factors associated with tax morale points out to two main categories namely, socio-demographic and socio-economic explanatory variables (such as age, gender, education, occupational status etc.) and institutional factors which are mainly related to the efficiency of the government's activity in allocating public funds, to the extent to which it manages to enhance confidence, to fight corruption and rent-seeking, and the way people perceives these aspects. This paper focuses on the institutional explanatory variables. Descriptive statistics and principal components analysis (PCA) are used as methods and the analysis is carried out at country group level.
This paper is organized as follows. In the next section, we provide a brief literature review on tax morale and its main determinants. Then, we present the research design, including our research hypotheses, based on the existing literature, data and methods. The next section of the paper provides the research results, at each country group. Finally, we discuss and conclude, also presenting the limits of this study.
Theoretical background. A growing literature coming from economics, sociology or psychology explores the wide range of variables that might explain voluntary compliance behaviour. Socio-economic factors such as age, religion, gender, employment status and educational attainment have a significant impact on people's levels of tax morale. Sometimes the research results are consistent among the existing studies while in other cases the results are heterogeneous. The empirical study of Williams and Krasniqi [13] on 35 Eurasian countries shows a higher tax morale when it comes to people who are married, who have children, who own their own home, who have a university degree and are employed as compared to the people belonging to the opposite categories. This study finds no significant relationship tax morale and gender.
Daude et al. [2] reached the same conclusions regarding the relationship between the level of education, employment and tax morale. In addition, they show that those who claim a faith or religious identity have more positive attitudes towards paying taxes. Related to gender, the results of this study point out that women exhibit higher levels of tax morale.
As for the influence of institutions on people' willingness to pay taxes, the empirical study developed by Frey and Torgler [4] on 30 West and East European countries proves a strong positive correlation between institutional quality and tax morale. Also, it has been proven that tax moral is higher in more developed countries with stronger legal systems and less corruption and with higher levels of state intervention in the form of both taxation and expenditure [13]. Besides, citizens who consider redistribution as an essential characteristic of democracy show higher tax morale [2].
The relationship between trust in government and people' willingness to pay taxes has also been largely investigated in literature, the results showing positive correlation [8; 9; 4]. The relationship between the taxpayers and the state takes the form of a "psychological tax contract" [3]. If the state is perceived as acting in a trustworthy way, developing positive actions, this enhances citizens' commitment and support and tax compliant behaviour is likely to increase [7; 10]. Research design.
3.1. Hypotheses
Based on the existing literature, we establish the following research hypotheses:
H1. The quality of institutions is associated with people' intrinsic motivation to pay taxes, no matter the level of development.
H2. Individuals' negative perception on the capacity of the government to efficiently allocate is negatively associated with their motivation to pay taxes, at all levels of development.
H3. Institutional factors associated with tax morale vary according to the level of development.
3.2. Data
Data on the level of Tax morale were retrieved from World Value Survey, 2010-2014 wave, and it has been constructed on the basis of the respondents' positioning to the following item: "Justifiable: Cheating on taxes if you have a chance". For the purpose of this paper we kept in the analysis only the "always justifiable" (which, in our paper, stands for low tax morale) and "never justifiable" (high tax morale) assessments.
Since Tax morale is about individuals' intrinsic motivation to pay taxes, all variables describing institutional framework are subjective indicators of individuals' perceptions. They were collected from various editions of World Competitiveness Report [15], World Bank governance indicators [14] and also World Value Survey [16] (Table 1).
Table 1. Explanatory institutional factors associated with tax morale
Variable Code Definition Source
Confidence in government Confidence_Gov The cumulative percentage of respondents' declaring a great deal of confidence and quite a lot of confidence in their government World Value Survey
Trust in people Trust_People The percentage of respondents' stating that "Most people can be trusted" World Value Survey
Preference for redistribution Redistrib The percentage of respondents' who consider that "Governments tax the rich and subsidize the poor is an essential characteristic of democracy" World Value Survey
Diversion of public funds Div_Publ_Funds The respondents' answers to the following: In your country, how common is diversion of public funds to companies, individuals, or groups due to corruption? (1 = very commonly occurs; 7 = never occurs) - weighted average assessment World Competitiveness Report
Wastefulness of government spending Waste_Gov_Spend The respondents' answers to the following: In your country, how efficiently does the government spend public revenue? (1 = extremely inefficient; 7 = extremely efficient in providing goods and services) - weighted average assessment World Competitiveness Report
Variable Code Definition Source
Government effectiveness Gov_Eff People' perceptions of the quality of public and civil services and policy World Bank governance indicators
Rule of law Rule_Law People' perceptions of the quality of the existing rules and the extent to which agents have confidence in these rules World Bank governance indicators
Control of corruption
Ctrl_Corr
People' perceptions of the extent to which public power is exercised for private gain and state capture
World Bank governance indicators
Our sample consists of 47 countries, grouped in three categories -developed (11 countries: Australia, Cyprus, Estonia, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, United States), developing economies (30 countries: Algeria, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Egypt, Ghana, Hong Kong, India, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Rwanda, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Uruguay, Zimbabwe) and economies in transition (6 countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine), according to UN World Economic Situation and Prospects country classification.
These countries were selected based on data availability for Tax morale.
3.3. Methods
Descriptive statistics and PCA are used as methods and the analysis was carried out at country group level. The first method provides an overview of the variation of the variables both within the country group and across the groups. Using PCA, we highlight the resemblances and the differences between the countries belonging to the same stage of development.
Results. 4.1. Descriptive Statistics.
Table 2 presents the results of the descriptive statistics for the three analysed groups of countries.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics
Country group
Developed
Developing
Economies in transition
Variable N Mean Max Min Std. Deviation Coef. of variation
Low_tax_morale 11 1,236 3,9 0,2 0,9678 78,30
High tax morale 11 66,918 83,8 52,9 8,5433 12,77
Confidence_Gov 11 28,964 52,8 7,7 13,2713 45,82
Trust_People 11 32,618 66,1 7,5 19,3703 59,39
Div Publ Funds 11 4,51 6,5 2,5 1,1480 25,45
Waste_Gov_Spend 11 3,264 4,5 2,2 0,7514 23,02
Redistrib 11 13,727 23,1 5 6,1195 44,58
Gov Eff 11 1,214 1,88 -0,31 0,6302 51,91
Rule_Law 11 1,239 1,91 0,02 0,5512 44,49
Ctrl_Corr 11 1,218 2,34 -0,26 0,7576 62,20
Low_tax_morale 30 2,020 12 0,2 3,0130 149,16
High_tax_morale 30 60,1733 86 32 14,2206 23,63
Confidence_Gov 30 47,7367 84,6 17,8 16,3988 34,35
Trust_People 30 17,9167 60,3 3,2 13,0897 73,06
Div Publ Funds 30 3,4733 6,1 1,8 1,1200 32,25
Waste_Gov_Spend 30 3,2367 5,9 1,4 1,0503 32,45
Redistrib 30 20,0233 51 8,9 10,3899 51,89
Gov_Eff 30 0,12 2,15 -1,36 0,7669 639,08
Rule_Law 30 -0,09 1,77 -1,78 0,7923 -880,33
Ctrl_Corr 30 -0,10 2,15 -1,38 0,8193 -819,30
Low_tax_morale 6 1,700 3,8 0,2 1,3023 76,61
High_tax_morale 6 64,550 84,4 48,2 14,7132 22,79
Confidence_Gov 6 51,4833 80,1 25,4 22,8609 44,40
Trust_People 6 22,0333 38,3 8,8 12,8115 58,15
Div Publ Funds 6 3,050 4,5 2,1 0,8140 26,69
Waste_Gov_Spend 6 3,1333 3,8 2,2 0,7146 22,81
Redistrib 6 23,7667 34,2 6,7 10,5135 44,24
Gov_Eff 6 -0,3783 0,48 -0,81 0,4956 -131,01
Rule_Law 6 -0,6133 0,20 -1,23 0,4823 -78,64
Ctrl_Corr 6 -0,6783 0,74 -1,15 0,7206 -106,24
Analysing the above data, we notice that, on average, when compared with the other two categories of countries, the developed ones are characterized by higher levels of tax morale, higher trust in people, lower diversion of public funds, higher government effectiveness, higher rule of law and a higher control of corruption. The citizens in these countries also declare lower confidence in their governments and lower preference for redistribution.
The results also point out major variations within the country groups. The coefficient of variation shows that the developed countries have the most homogenous behaviour regarding almost all the issues. The most heterogeneous
behaviour is manifested by the developing countries, having extreme differences of opinions regarding the government efficiency, the rule of law and the control of corruption.
4.2. Results of PCA for developed countries.
The results of PCA for developed countries show an association between low tax morale, confidence in the government, trust in the people, diversion of public funds, wastefulness of government spending, government efficiency, rule of law, control of corruption and preference for redistribution. This combination of variables explains over 85% of the total variance through the first two components (Table 3).
Table 3. Total variance explained by the initial solution Total Variance Explained
ComDonent Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % ofVariance Cumulative % Total % ofVariance Cumulative %
1 6,599 73,318 73,318 6,599 73,318 73,318
2 1,071 11,899 85,216 1,071 11,899 85,216
3 ,828 9,197 94,413
4 ,195 2,166 96,579
5 ,130 1,443 98,022
6 ,118 1,312 99,334
7 ,045 ,503 99,837
8 ,015 ,163 100,000
9 1.194E-005 ,000 100,000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
All of the variables (except for Confidence_gov) have significant contribution to the first component, with which low
tax morale and redistribution are negatively correlated, and the other variables are positively correlated (Table 4).
Table 4. Component matrix Component Matrix8
Component
1 2
Confidence_gov ,591 ,682
Trust_people ,882 ,126
Div_publ_funds ,972 ,129
Waste_gov_s pend ,892 ,343
Gov_eff ,936 -,182
Rule_Law ,965 -,156
Ctrl_corr ,963 -.127
Redistrib -,791 ,180
Low_tax_morale -,609 ,591
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
a. 2 components extracted.
Figure 1 a and Figure 1 b. below show variables and, respectively, countries positioning in the first two factorial axes. Component Plot Component Plot
Confidence_gov
Low tax morale O
O
Waste_gov spenc
O
Redistrib
O Trust_people
0 0
Dr/jjublfunds
Ctfcorr
Rjfe.Law^
Gov_eff
Component 1
Fig. 1a. Component plot
Source: Output obtained in SPSS.
Fig. 1b. Components' score
Source: Output obtained in SPSS.
From Figure 1a there can be noticed a positive association between low tax morale and high preference for redistribution and a negative one between these two variables and the institutional indicators. Countries' positioning in Figure 1a shows that Romania has an opposite behaviour as to the rest of the developed countries, its citizens manifesting a low intrinsic motivation to pay taxes and a high preference for redistribution. At the same time, in Romania the institutional quality is low, the citizens perceive the government as ineffective, the wastefulness of public
The variables that have significant contribution to the first component are confidence in government, diversion of public funds, wastefulness of government spending, government effectiveness, rule of law and control of corruption, and all of them being positively correlated with
money and the diversion of public funds as high and they declare a low level of interpersonal trust.
4.3. Results of PCA for developing countries.
The results of PCA for the group of the developing countries show the same association of variables as for the developed countries, except for the preference for redistribution. This combination of variables explains over 75% of the total variance through the first two components (Table 5).
the first component. The low tax morale and the trust in people contribute significantly to the second component. Low tax morale is positively and trust in people is negatively correlated with the second component (Table 6).
Table 6. Component matrix Component Matrix8
Component
1 2
Confidence_gov ,646 -,388
Trust_people ,498 -,618
Div_publ_funds ,925 ,013
Waste_gov_spend ,820 ,011
Gov_eff ,886 ,263
Rule_Law ,899 ,249
Ctrl_corr ,929 ,227
Low_1ax_morale -,228 ,572
Table 5. Total variance explained by the initial solution Total Variance Explained
Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % ofVariance Cumulative %
1 4,661 58,260 58,260 4,661 58,260 58,260
2 1,418 17,720 75,980 1,418 17,720 75,980
3 ,754 9,428 85,408
4 ,592 7,395 92,804
5 ,325 4,062 96,866
6 ,139 1,738 98,604
7 ,064 ,803 99,407
8 ,047 ,593 100,000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
a. 2 components extracted.
Analysing the results, we notice that in those countries public revenues, and rule of law and control of corruption are with high confidence in government, the diversion of public high. Also, countries with low trust in people have low tax funds rarely occurs, the government efficiently spends morale (Figure 2a and 2b).
Component Plot
Low tax morale 0 "
-1— -0,5
Gov el
Waste_gov_spend -O- "
Dw_publ_funds
Qanfkleticejjov
TrustjKople 0
0,0
Component 1
Fig. 2a. Component plot
Source: Output obtained in SPSS.
The display of the countries according with the two components' score show, for the first component, a somewhat similar behaviour of China, Hong Kong and Singapore, with high values for confidence in government, government efficiency, rule of law and control of corruption, lower diversion of public funds and lower wastefulness, as opposed to the other developing countries.
Also, from the second component we observe that China has an opposite behaviour as to the other countries, having
Fig. 2b. Components' score
Source: Output obtained in SPSS.
high trust in people and high tax morale. The different culture and the political regime may explain China's positioning among the developing countries.
4.3. Results of PCA for economies in transition The PCA performed for the group of economies in transition relies on the same combination of variables as for the developing economies, which explains about 85% of the total variance through the first two components (Table 7).
Table 7. Total variance explained by the initial solution Total Variance Explained
ComDonent Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % ofVariance Cumulative % Total % ofVariance Cumulative %
1 4,901 61,259 61,259 4,901 61,259 61,259
2 1,885 23,558 84,817 1,885 23,558 84,817
3 ,792 9,900 94,717
4 ,293 3,666 98,383
5 ,129 1,617 100,000
6 1.009E-013 1.106E-013 100,000
7 1,001E-013 1.017E-013 100,000
8 -1.002E-013 -1.019E-013 100,000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
The variables that have significant contribution to the first component are high tax morale, government effectiveness, rule of law, control of corruption, diversion of public funds, positively correlated, and trust in people which is negatively correlated with the first component.
The confidence in government and wastefulness of public spending are significantly and positively correlated with the second component (Table 8).
1,00,5"
(M
c •
c
0 0,0"
o.
E
o
o
-0,5"
Table 8. Component matrix Component Matrix9
Component
1 2
Confidence_gov -,332 ,900
Trust_people -,780 ,033
Div_publ_funds ,952 ,102
Waste_gov_spend ,451 ,805
Gov_eff ,896 -,188
Rule_Law ,962 -,081
Ctrl_corr ,930 -.283
High_tax_morale ,691 ,542
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
a. 2 components extracted.
Component Plot
Confidetice_gov
Trustjeople
Waste_gov_spend
Hghjaxjrwab 0
Dv_publ_fund!
■nr»
0
Component 1
Fig.3a. Component plot
Source: Output obtained in SPSS.
The display of the countries according with the two components show that Georgia, which has a high tax morale, is opposed with the other countries (with a low tax morale, a low government effectiveness, low control of corruption and low rule of law, and with high level of trust in people).
According to the second component, we observe that Georgia is associated with low wastefulness of government spending and with low confidence in the government, as opposed to Azerbaijan, which has high confidence in the government and low wastefulness of government spending.
Discussions and conclusions. This paper aimed at identifying the institutional factors associated with tax moral at country- group level and at highlighting the resemblances and the differences between the countries belonging to the same level of development.
The descriptive statistics results show that the group formed by the developed countries clearly distinguishes from the other two by higher tax morale, higher trust in people, lower diversion of public funds, lower wastefulness of government spending, higher government effectiveness,
Fig.3b. Components' score
Source: Output obtained in SPSS.
rule of law and control of corruption, and lower confidence in government and lower preference for redistribution.
Our research hypotheses are confirmed by the results obtained with PCA. No matter the level of development, people' intrinsic motivation to pay taxes can be associated with good institutions and government ability to efficiently allocate public funds. The institutional factors consistently associated with tax morale are confidence in government, trust in the people, diversion of public funds, wastefulness of government spending, government efficiency, rule of law, control of corruption. The results also show that the individuals' preference for redistribution can be associated (positively) with low tax morale only in the developed countries. This variable is not an explanatory one when it comes to developing and transition economies.
Each country group displays one country with a different behaviour from all the rest: Romania (belonging to the group of developed countries) - low tax morale and high preference for redistribution; low confidence in the government; low trust in the people; high diversion of public funds; high wastefulness of government spending; low
government efficiency, low rule of law and control of corruption; China (a developing economy) - high tax morale, high trust in people, high confidence in government, high perceived institutional quality (government effectiveness, rule of law and control of corruption), lower diversion of public funds and lower wastefulness of public spending; and Georgia (economy in transition) - high tax morale, high government effectiveness, high control of corruption and high rule of law, but low trust in people.
The obtained results also confirm the results of previous studies in this field. Institutional factors that shape individuals' attitudes towards paying taxes are related to the "perceptions regarding institutions, the use of tax revenues such as the quality of public services, and the strength of democracy" [2].
Also, the results obtained for countries' characterisation are consistent with other studies in the field. For example, when analysing tax morale in Asian countries, Torgler [9] found that Japan, China and India have high tax morale values and, furthermore, these are higher than for OECD countries. The same study also shows that tax morale is very low in Philippines.
The limits of this research derive from two main issues: data subjectivity and data coverage. Referring to the first one the attitudes expressed in public opinion surveys do not necessarily predict actual behaviour. For example, according to an article published by Forbes magazine, "79% of Americans say it's morally wrong to cheat on their taxes. Yet, it's estimated that over 1.6 million individuals cheat on their taxes each year" [6]. When it comes to data coverage we can conclude that further research should take into consideration a more in-depth country analysis in order to provide inspiring solutions for policy reform.
References:
1. Cummings, R. G., Martinez-Vazquez, J., McKee, M. and Torgler, B., 2009. Tax Morale Affects Tax Compliance: Evidence from Surveys and an Artefactual Field Experiment. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 70 (3), pp.447-457, DOI: 10.1016/j.jebo.2008.02.010
2. Daude, C., Gutiérrez, H. and Melguizo, A., 2012. What Drives Tax Morale? Working Paper No. 315. OECD Development Centre: URL : http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/what-drives-tax-morale_ 5k8zk8m61 kzq-en.
A.-O. Лакобута, д-р екон. наук, доц.,
Г.К. Мурза, д-р екон. наук, проф.
Ясський ушверситет iMeHi А.1. Кузи, Ясси, Румушя
3. Feld, L.P. and Frey, B.S., 2007. Tax Evasion, Tax Amnesties and the Psychological Tax Contract. International Studies Program Andrew Young School of Policy Studies Georgia State University: http://icepp.gsu.edu/files/2015/03/ispwp0729.pdf.
4. Frey, B. S. and Torgler, B., 2007. Tax Morale and Conditional Cooperation. Journal of Comparative Economics, vol. 35, pp.136-159, DOI: 10.1016/j.jce.2006.10.006.
5. Lacobuta, A.O., Viorica, E.D. and Asandului, M., 2016. Institutional Factors Associated with Tax Morale. Paper presented at the 20th International Conference "Ethics in Economic Life". Lodz, Poland. Abstract published in Proceedings (2016). Lodz University Press, vol. 69.
6. Morin, A., 2016. Study Says Cheating May Help You Get Ahead, But You'll Lose More in The End. Forbes Magazine: URL : https://www.forbes.com/sites/amymorin/2016/05/07/study-says-cheating-may-help-you-get-ahead-but-youll-lose-more-in-the-end/#13a9b06965ef.
7. Smith, K. W., 1992. Reciprocity and Fairness: Positive Incentives for Tax Compliance. In: J. Slemrod (ed.). Why People Pay Taxes. Tax Compliance and Enforcement. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp.223-258.
8. Torgler, B., 2003. Tax Morale in Transition Countries. Post-Communist Economies, 15(3), pp.357-381, DOI: 10.1080/ 1463137032000139052
9. Torgler, B., 2004. Tax morale in Asian countries. Journal of Asian Economics, vol. 15, pp.237-266.
10. Torgler, B., 2011. Tax Morale and Compliance Review of Evidence and Case Studies for Europe. Policy Research Working Paper 5922. World Bank: URL : http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/ 862221468282310839/pdf/WPS5922.pdf.
11. Torgler, B. and Schneider, F., 2007. Shadow Economy, Tax Morale, Governance and Institutional Quality: A Panel Analysis. IZA DP No. 2563: URL : https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c749/7fcea37ef43552a0e848ce 930120728384d6.pdf.
12. Torgler, B. and Schneider, F., 2009. The impact of tax morale and institutional quality on the shadow economy. Journal of Economic Psychology, 30(2), pp.228-245. DOI: 10.1016/j.joep.2008.08.004.
13. Williams, C.C. and Krasniqi, B.A., 2017. Evaluating the individualand country-level variations in tax morale: Evidence from 35 Eurasian countries. Journal of Economic Studies, 44 (5), pp.816-832. DOI: 10.1108/ JES-09-2016-0182
14. World Bank: Worldwide Governance Indicators: URL : http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/#home.
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Received: 26/07/2018 1st Revision: 20/08/18 Accepted: 10/10/2018
A first version was presented at The 20th Scientific Conference "ETHICS IN ECONOMIC LIFE", May 12-13, 2016, Lodz, Poland.
1НСТИТУЦ1ЙН1 ФАКТОРИ, ЩО ПОВ'ЯЗАН1 З ПОДАТКОВО1 МОРАЛЛЮ: АНАЛ1З НА Р1ВН1 ГРУПИ КРА1Н
Нарощувана економiкою, соц/'олог/'ею або психологieю лiтература дослiджуe широкий спектр змiнних, як, напевно, зможуть пояс-нити поведнку добровльного дотримання стандартiв. Метою цеУроботи е виявлення iнституцiйних чинникв, пов'язаних Iз податко-вою мораллю, а також виявлення подiбностей i вiдмiнностей мiж деклькома кранами свту, згрупованими за рiвнем розвитку. Як ме-тоди використовуються описова статистика й аналiз основних компонент/в, а саме розгляд проводиться на рiвнi групи краУн. Основнi результати показують, що, незалежно в/'д рiвня розвитку, внутрiшня мотиваця людей платити податки може бути пов'язана з хорошими державними iнститутами i здатнстю уряду ефективно розподляти державн кошти.
Ключовi слова: податкова мораль, стадiя розвитку, iнститути, уряд, корупця, аналiз основних компонентiв.
А.-О. Лакобута, д-р экон. наук, доц., Г.К. Мурза, д-р экон. наук, проф.
Ясский университет имени А. И. Кузы, Яссы, Румыния
ИНСТИТУЦИОНАЛЬНЫЕ ФАКТОРЫ, СВЯЗАННЫЕ С НАЛОГОВОЙ МОРАЛЬЮ: АНАЛИЗ НА УРОВНЕ ГРУППЫ СТРАН
Наращиваемая экономикой, социологией или психологией литература исследует широкий спектр переменных, которые, наверное, смогут объяснить поведение добровольного соблюдения стандартов. Целью данной работы является выявление институциональных факторов, связанных с налоговой моралью, а также выявление сходств и различий между несколькими странами мира, сгруппированными по уровню развития. В качестве методов используются описательная статистика и анализ основных компонентов, а само рассмотрение проводится на уровне группы стран. Основные результаты показывают, что, независимо от уровня развития, внутренняя мотивация людей платить налоги может быть связана с хорошими государственными институтами и способностью правительства эффективно распределять государственные средства.
Ключевые слова: налоговая мораль, стадия развития, институты, правительство, коррупция, анализ основных компонентов.
