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BECTH. MOCK. YH-TA. CEP. 13. BOCTOKOBE^EHHE. 2021. № 4
Marina V. Frolova
INDONESIAN FOLKLORE GUIDE: STRUCTURE OF A NEW COURSE OF LECTURES
Lomonosov Moscow State University
1 Leninskie Gory, Moscow, 119991
The Nusantara folklore studies are included into the basic course for IAAS students of Indonesian language groups. The renewed course of folklore paves the way for the future deeper understanding of Indonesian literature and culture. The course titled 'Indonesian Folklore Guide' is planned to be published. Its main topics are myths and rituals, folk tales, minor folklore genres, ghost-lore and modern forms of Indonesian folklore. Ten lectures are devoted to the following subjects: 1) Spirits, Shamans and Were-Demons: Spells and Incantations; 2) Gods and Heroes: Mythological texts; 3) Shadows, Puppets, Masks and People: Rituals, Sacred Performances and Story-Telling; 4) Giants, Hermits and the Royals: Wonder Tales; 5) Indonesian Cinderellas and Sleeping Beauties: Folktale Motifs and Archaic Reconstructions; 6) The Cunning Mouse-Deer Kancil and the Lazy Man Si Kabayan: Tales about Tricksters; 7) Minor Folklore Genres: Riddles, Pantuns, Jokes and Proverbs; 8) Ghosts and Ghouls: Indonesian Demonology; 9) Child-lore, Urban-lore & Internet-lore; 10) The Future of the Folklore. The course includes group discussions and creative homework assignments. The bibliography and recommendations for students include Indonesian and Malay original sources, translated texts as well as theoretical works by prominent folklorists, philologists and anthropologists.
Key words: Indonesian folklore; Indonesian mythology; Indonesian rituals; Indonesian tales; minor Indonesian folklore genres; Indonesian ghostlore.
Acknowledgements
The idea of writing down the full course of lectures on the topic 'Indonesian Folklore', as the first step towards a complete the Indonesian Literature Course for students, is not new. The main obstacle to achieve this task is the huge amount of the material, which is still underestimated and not sufficiently analysed by the specialists of Indonesian studies. The
Marina V. Frolova - PhD (Philology), Associate Professor, Department of Philology of the South-East Asia, Korea and Mongolia, Institute of Asian and African Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University (e-mail: [email protected]).
basis of this course is similar to the lectures by my predecessor Nadezhda Smurova given in 2004-2008. Unfortunately, her work has never been published, existing in a form of the only printed copy dated 1990 that now serves as an important reference for the new course. This heritage provided me as a lecturer with a starting point, and after 10 years of my studying and teaching the subject the amount of theoretical works and original texts considerably increased.
Nowadays the course is significantly developed due to many discovered and re-discovered 'new' details. Hopefully to be published soon, the 'Indonesian Folklore Guide' is pretty much based on my predecessors' accomplishments, long quotations from famous works and well-known examples from original and translated texts. The main Indonesian scientific source of this guide is the brilliant work by Indonesian anthropologist James Danandjaja (Folklor Indonesia, 1984)1. As for the theoretical part of the guide, I used the works written by prominent folklore specialists (Yu. Berezkin, V. Braginsky, A. Dundes, C. Geertz, L. Goriaeva, C. and J. Hooykaas, R. Jordaan, J.P.B. de Josselin de Jong, Koetjaraningrat, S. Kullanda, C. Lévi-Strauss, E. Meletinsky, S. Nekliudov, B. Parnickel, J. Peacock, Th. Pigeaud, R.M.Ng. Poerbatjaraka, V. Propp, W. Rassers, W. Skeat, L. Vinogradova, R. Wessing, R. Winstedt, D. Zelenin, etc.). My teachers have paved the way towards these lectures I give now to my students. Four planned chapters comprise ten lectures and help to organize class work, homework and discussions. For the convenience of the future readers and users, table of contents include chapters, sections and paragraphs of the guide as well as special remarks when the lectures start and end. (Not every chapter or section equals one lecture).
My own main input to boost the Indonesian folklore studies is focused on the relatively new topics of Indonesian ghost-lore, presented in the 4th chapter, which is divided into two sections: tradition and modernity. The line between the two is not always easily discernible, due to constant interweaving of old beliefs and contemporary mass culture. I have also re-made a significant part of the lectures about Indonesian wonder tales. New addenda include some notes about Indonesian jokes in form of funny riddles, as well as the final part of the course with some considerations about modern forms of Indonesian folklore and its future. The number of references is quite large. The list of the works includes studies in Russian, English, German, Dutch, Indonesian and Malay languages. Indeed, some
1 Danandjaya J. Folklore Indonesia [Indonesian Folklore]. Jakarta: Pustaka Grafitipers, 1986. (In Indonesian).
topics remain beyond the scope of this course, but I hope, these gaps can be filled in future subsequent editions.
My first acquaintance with the academic and popular writings about Indonesia began in 2003 at my alma mater, the Institute of Asian and African Studies of Lomonosov Moscow State University, when being a first year student of the Indonesian group specializing in Indonesian philology, I read two books that later played a tremendous role in my own Nusantara research journey. The first book was published in 1973 within the Soviet series 'Travelling around the countries of the East'. It was translated from the French original (Le Sacré à Java et à Bali) written by M. Ottin and A. Bensa and was titled in Russian as 'Wizards from Java'2. It's a pity, at the beginning of the 2000s I had a very small chance to see and experience things described in this book. Jakarta was depicted as 'a giant octopus spread on the ocean, wide tentacles of its streets clutched into the sand', or 'The rickshaw plays the role of taxi' or, which is more important, a dukun (shaman) turns into a 'tiger' himself, or turns other people into wild boars and otters.
The second book was 'Peoples of Malaysia and West Indonesia' by Yelena Revunenkova3, who is a prominent ethnographer working at the Peter The Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (the 'Kunstkamera') in Saint-Petersburg. After the detailed scientific description and explanation of the technology of the miracles made by the Indonesian shamans in her book, I already knew how I would like to proceed. Malay magic spells, the subject of my first course paper, led me after many years to the thesis on the topic 'Animistic symbolism in traditional and modern Indonesian literature' (2016), and I can't forget that the path to the thesis started precisely with those colourful texts about shamanic wonders.
Now animism in Indonesia continues existing in the form of local beliefs, but both westernization and islamization rapidly influence the ancient beliefs. Tribal cults in their original form have been preserved only in distant places of the globe, including the inner areas of some Indonesian islands. Isolated peoples, whether they are Muslims or Christians, tend to follow the traditional beliefs in their everyday life. Rudimental form of these beliefs from the pre-Islamic times made huge impact on the further development of Indonesian culture in general. The topics of culture and religion go hand in hand with the folklore of Indonesia, so
2 Ottin M., Bensa A. Charodei s Yavy [Magicians from Java]. Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1973. (In Russ.).
3 Revunenkova Ye. Narody Malaizii i Zapadnoi Indonezii. Nekotorye aspekty dukhovnoi kul'tury. [Peoples of Malaysia and West Indonesia. Some Aspects of Spiritual Culture]. Moscow: Nauka Publ. 1980. (In Russ.).
I made an emphasis on it for our students, who are always interested in fascinating diversity of Indonesia.
The course starts with the most ancient forms and ends with the modern forms of the lore widely spread on the insular territory of the Indonesian Republic.
Lecture 1 Mythology
Spirits, Shamans and Were-Demons: Spells and Incantations
The first lecture begins with an introduction. It starts with the description of different schools and approaches of the folklore studies, introduces the concept of verbal and non-verbal forms of folklore texts. In the global sense the word 'text' includes music, dancing, rituals, customs, crafts, architecture. The division into folklore genres (predominantly in the form of a spoken word) determines the structure of the future book of lectures: from the ancient myths to the Internet-lore. The outline leads towards Chapter One titled 'Indonesian Myths and Rituals'. The chapter is divided into three sections and to read it takes the same time as three lectures on this topic given in a classroom.
The first section 'Spirits, shamans and were-animals. Charms and spells' includes paragraphs about the shamanic myths of Nusantara peoples. Animism is associated with a journey of a shaman's soul across the three worlds (underworld, 'middle' (human) world, heavenly abode of gods and spirits of ancestors). Images of wildlife reflect another important mythological concept of the shaman's ability to turn into different animals. Further paragraphs are dedicated to the image of the boat as a ritual transport to the other world (I.1.1. The Ship of the Dead: Shamanic Worlds and Ritual Transport) and to the tiger as a totemic lord of the jungle (I.I.2. Tiger Folk: Great Spirit, Shaman and Were-animal). Texts of different Malay charms, original and translated ones, and spells illustrate the lecture (I.I.3. Malay Mantras, Charms and Spells). Shipbuilding, wildlife, medicine, love matters and agricultural magic - are represented in the following paragraphs: I.I.3.A. 'Enter your Embodiment': Ship Spells; I.I.3.B. 'Go to the Jungle Dense': Mantras to Banish Wild Animals; I.I.3.C. 'Return to Your Sarong': Medical Mantras; I.I.3.D. 'I'll Burn Arjuna's Arrows': Love Spells; I.I.3.E. 'Shining Sun, Brilliant Moon': Agricultural Spells.
Lecture 2 Mythology
Gods and Heroes: Mythological texts
Lecture Two corresponds to Section Two of Chapter One Demons, gods and heroes, myths and legends. This section explores the concept of myth (I.2.1. Introduction to the concept of Myth) and illustrates its different types with examples taken from the folklore of Indonesian peoples: these are myths about the origin of the world and the first men (I.2.2. People from Bamboo: Myths about the Origin of Men). The ability to take various forms is valid not only for the gods and heroes, but also for the characters of the lower mythology - spirits of the dead, demons and ghosts. Examples comprise the most archaic types of myths, like those originating from Papua that have survived till recent times, preserving the most archaic forms.
The topics dealing with the natural phenomena, the acts of the cultural hero, deeds of the demiurge and tricksters correspond to Paragraph I.2.3. The Land of the Dead behind the Estuary of the Digul River: Myths about the Cultural Hero. Some other examples of various myth types (cosmogony, creation of a human being, natural objects, etc.) are taken not only from the Papua region, but also include mythology of peoples of Sumatra, Sulawesi, Kalimantan and other islands of the archipelago. These topics may also be found in I.2.4. Stolen Rice: Aetiological Myths about the Cultural Hero and His Gifts and in the next subsection I.2.5. The Marriage of the Sun to the Moon: Cosmogony, Demiurge and Trickster.
Paragraph I.2.6. "Indian Antiquity ": Mythology of the Javanese World introduces texts originated from Java and Bali as the examples of later less ancient indianized myths. This mythology deals with gods, heroes and demons of the Hindu origin. Rice myths serve as an illustration for the richest semi-Hindu mythology of the rice goddess (I.2.7. Murder of Prime Cosmic Entity: Myths about the Rice Goddess Dewi Sri). The mythological and ritual complex devoted to the goddess of the South Sea, whose cult began to flourish during the islamization period of Java (from the XVI century), is considered in Paragraph I.2.8. Sakti for a Sultan: Myths about the Goddess of the Southern Sea Nyai Roro Kidul. Next paragraph provides examples and identifies some texts as legends about religious leaders and as historical tales (I.2.9. The First Mosque, the Evil Witch and the Foundation of the State: Religious Legends and Historical Myths of Nusantara).
Lecture 3
Rituals
Shadows, Puppets, Masks and People: Rituals, Sacred Performances and Story-Telling
The third section Shadows, Puppets, Masks and People. Ritual, Dance, Folk Theater and Story-Telling reveals the mythological nature of theatrical performances. Nusantara's myths were performed in different ways, but were always played on certain days to accompany agricultural cycle. Large amount of the rituals are still performed at the Sultan's court. The artistic presentation of myths in the form of dance was held on the occasion of initiation rites and Rites of Passage (birth, circumcision, wedding or funeral). The topics include Mythic and Ritualistic Performances: Sacred Dances (1.3.1.), Trance Dance and Possession (I.3.2.) discussing such famous cases as Barong, Reog Ponorogo, etc. Much attention is paid to the topic of the Shadow Theatre Wayang Kulit (I.3.3.) with an example from Java: Exorcism in the Lakon Murwokolo (I.3.4.) Some words are dedicated to Sundanese Puppet Theatre Wayang Golek (I.3.5.). A few remarks are made regarding the famous clown figures of wayang in Pu-nokawan's Semar andPetruk: Java's Keepers (I.3.6.), and the parallels are drawn between the two types of Indonesian folk performers, as reflected in their role, functions and art in Dalang and The Penglipur Lara: Master of Puppets and Consoler of Sorrows (I.3.7.).
Lecture 4
Wonder Tales
Giants, Hermits and the Royals: Wonder Tales
Chapter Two of the book (and Lectures Four and Five) deals with folk tales, their heroes' functions, structure of tales, theories of origin and some attempts of reconstruction. Two sections analyse the types of tales. The chapter explains main differences between myths and folk tales. Myths and legends, as well as ghost stories (see below) are considered to be true, but 'fairy' tales (wonder tales as more accurate term for Indonesian material), as well as other 'nursery' tales, are made up on purpose (for amusement, education, etc.). The most frequently found tales of Nusan-tara are wonder tales with narratives about ordinary and royal people and magical adventures happened to them.
The first section titled The Giant, the Hermit and the Coconut. Wonder Tales of Indonesia analyses the magical fairy tales or wonder
tales (cerita ajaib). Paragraphs contain following themes: II.1.1. Types and Motifs of Indonesian Wonder Tales; II.1.2. Functions of the Heroes of an Indonesian Wonder Tale (according to Vladimir Propp); II.1.3. A Pot of Skull, a Firewood From Bones. Archaic Tales. For Indonesia the so-called mythological wonder tales are a specific transition genre. The chapter introduces methods of historical anthropology, semiotics and psychoanalysis applied to wonder tale studies. The 4th lecture explains structural approaches offered by different folklorists on some examples known also from the European fairy tales (II.1.4. Kinship of Plots about Disguise: Cinderella in a Monkey Skin; II.1.5. Contamination of Motifs: Sleeping Beauty and Rivalry of Wives).
Lecture 5
Wonder Tales
Indonesian Cinderellas and Sleeping Beauties: Folktale Motifs and Archaic Reconstructions
The 5th lecture continues the discussion about wonder tales. The following instruments for an individual research are explained: the Typeindex (for the whole plot, created by Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson, AT or MT, Märchen-Typus), the Motif-index (for plot elements, created by Stith Thompson) and the large digital database of the world's folklore created and constantly updated by Yuri Berezkin. Such topics as types of tales, motifs, allomotifs and motifemes, the classification indexes are represented in II.1.6. (Snake) Skin Burned: Motif andAllomotif. Motifemes as the most reliable tale elements - like Disequilibrium/Equilibrium, Lack/Lack Liquidated, Interdiction/Violation, Consequence/Attempted Escape etc. - are effectively applied to some Indonesian wonder tales. The closing discussion on the topic offers a possible reconstruction of the most archaic version of the famous Oedipus-type Sundanese folk tale Sang Kuriang (II.1.7. Sang Kuriang's Case Study: Reconstruction of a Demythologized Text).
Lecture 6
Tales about Tricksters
The Cunning Mouse-Deer Kancil and the Lazy Man Si Kabayan
The second section engages with tales about animals (II.2.1. Totem or Social Allegory? Tales about Animals) and tales about fools and slyboots/ numskulls (II.2.2. Domestic Absurd and Folk Laughter. Tales about Fools).
In their cunning deeds the mouse-deer (kancil or pelanduk) and some other animal tricksters like monkey are equal to their human counterparts like the Sundanese fabled peasant Si Kabayan, or Malay "fools" Pak Ka-dok, Pak Pandir, Lebai Malang, Pak Belalang, Si Luncai, Balinese Pan Balangtamak and Singa Rewa from the Central Kalimantan. The genesis of animal and human tricksters is clearly mythological. This part of the course also discusses the problem of the laughter in folklore and touches the subject of sick humour in later tales about ordinary people.
Lecture 7
Minor Folklore Genres
Riddles, Pantuns, Jokes and Proverbs
Chapter Three is devoted to the minor genres of folklore and consists of four sections discussing these genres starting from the most ancient forms (riddles and folk lyrics) to the most recent ones (proverbs and jokes). Section One With a Trunk, but not an Elephant: Traditional Malay Riddles introduces the phenomenon of folk riddles classified according to their themes (riddles about plants, insects, birds, animals, people, weapons, buildings, various devices and objects, etc.). Section Two You are There, I'm Here like the Owl Who Misses the Moon: Malay Folk Quatrains (Pantun) is divided into following subsections: III.2.1. Technique and Symbols of Pantun; III.2.2. Other Types: Stitched pantun andgurindam. Many Malays and Indonesians, as well as some foreigners interested in local culture, started their acquaintance with their folklore precisely from pantuns - folk rhymed quatrains, with the first two lines containing a hint at the message, while the following two explaining it directly. Pantun was the first genre to catch the attention of the Europeans who arrived at the Islands of the Malay Archipelago. Section Three (A Shrimp under the Stone: Proverbs and Sayings) is divided into the following paragraphs: III.3.1. Proverbs, Sayings and Paroemia. III.3.2. Classification of Indonesian Proverbs. Pantun was the most prominent of traditional minor folkloric genres, but today this realm is dominated by jokes and anecdotes. Section Four (Where the Rickshaw has His Break? Indonesian Anecdotes) contains two paragraphs (III.4.1. About the Game of Words and Indonesian Humour; III.4.2. Which Beast is the Richest, or Short Funny Riddles), which elaborate on wordplay, numskull stories, jokes about politicians and religious precepts, the immigrant accent, sick humour, ethnic slurs.
Lecture 8 Ghost-lore
Ghosts and Ghouls: Indonesian Demonology
Chapter Four of the guide respectively containing 8th lecture is based on the new material neglected before, and is exploring the phenomenon of the evolution of the Indonesian demonology. The lecture offers a comparative-typological, diachronic and synchronic analysis of the various images of ghosts, monsters and the walking dead. Section One The Cerita Hantu Genre and Its Dramatis Personae includes a number of topics. First of all, it explains Who is Hantu? (IV.1.1.). In the next paragraphs hantus are analyzed according to their appearance and actions: IV.1.2. The Sisterhood of Terror4: Pontianak and Other Female Ghosts; IV.1.3. Jumped Out from the Grave: Pocong and the Folk Islam; IV.1.4. Pesugihan as the Mythological Deal with Evil Spirits: Tuyul, Babi Ngepet andNyi Blorong; IV. 1.5. The Great Spirit and the Traditional Perception of Hantus in the Region.
Lecture 9 Ghost-lore
Child-lore, Urban-lore, Internet-lore
Section Two Came without Invitation, Gone without Seeing off: Child-lore, Effigies and Spirits explores urban ghost-lore forms and describes popular contemporary city performances in paragraphs Jakarta Mummers Ondel-Ondel (IV.2.1) and Séance: Jelangkung and Nini Thowong (IV.2.2.). These paragraphs prepare the epilogue about postfolklore forms, consideration about the existence of folklore in the era of globalization, urbanization and islamization. Section Three Ghost-lore and Internet-lore explains the emergence of the ghosts of victims, who died of sexual violence, like Sundel Bolong and Suster Ngesot (IV.3.1.), constructs the characters of Incubus Gendruwo and sorcerer-maniac Kolor Ijo (IV.3.2.) and explores the mass culture phenomenon of folk laughter practice in Mbak Kunti andPakPocong in Mass Culture: Flashmobs and Pranks (V.2.4). Analysis of the lower mythology characters
4 The sisterhood of terror is an expression created by Andrew Hock Soon Ng in 2014 for his input to the Asian horror cinema studies, see Hock Soon Ng, A. Sisterhood of Terror. The Monstrous Feminine of Southeast Asian Horror Cinema. A Companion to the Horror Film, ed. H.M. Benshoff, West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2014. pp. 442-459.
is given in the light of the cultural anthropology and intersects with the interpretations of the images of demons and monsters in mass culture.
Lecture 10
The Future of the Folklore
The closing chapter is titled YouTube Versus Wayang: Stand-Up, Mockumentary and Wayang about terrorists. With the inevitable de-construction, the folklore continues to remain a national identifier, and its symbols like the shapes of the shadow and puppet theatre wayang, musical instruments, addiction to poetry and poetic expression, widely presented art of dance etc., retains its magical functions as a nationwide expression of the Indonesians' identity, their joys and sorrows (suka-duka).
Folklore as a field of studies appears in the XIX century Europe, when some concerns started to be voiced concerning disappearance of some traditional folklore. The current state of the Indonesian folklore is more likely to be defined as Post-folklore, with some folklore genres being still alive (proverbs and sayings in the media and journalism), some thriving in the Internet (jokes, ghost stories), and some (for example, pantun) losing their popularity and retaining prominence mainly due to modern speech competitions (predominantly in Malaysia). Folklore in Indonesia is also systematically preserved: there is no such event that would not be opened with colourful greeting dances. In schools and many universities, compulsory or elective courses of folk dance are offered to the students, almost everywhere there are classes available to practice singing and playing musical instruments in the traditional Javanese (or Balinese) musical orchestra. Folklore today contributes into expanding tourism, while commodification of some folklore forms is helping Indonesian regions to boost the economic development. Of course, this kind of evolution destroys the old and establishes new national myths. Folklore is also heavily incorporated into modern Indonesian literature. It's absolutely impossible to understand modern poetry and prose without the knowledge of the folklore.
REFERENCES
1. Ottin M., Bensa A. Charodei s Yavy [Magicians from Java]. Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1973. (In Russ.).
2. Revunenkova Ye. Narody Malaizii i Zapadnoi Indonezii. Nekotorye aspekty dukhov-noi kul'tury. [Peoples of Malaysia and West Indonesia. Some Aspects of Spiritual Culture]. Moscow: Nauka Publ. 1980. (In Russ.).
3. Hock Soon Ng, A. Sisterhood of Terror. The Monstrous Feminine of Southeast Asian Horror Cinema. A Companion to the Horror Film, ed. H.M. Benshoff, West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2014, pp. 442-459.
4. Danandjaya J. Folklore Indonesia [Indonesian Folklore]. Jakarta: Pustaka Grafitipers, 1986. (In Indonesian).
М.В. Фролова ПУТЕВОДИТЕЛЬ
ПО ИНДОНЕЗИЙСКОМУ ФОЛЬКЛОРУ: СТРУКТУРА НОВОГО КУРСА ЛЕКЦИЙ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего образования
«Московский государственный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова»
119991, Москва, Ленинские горы, 1
Изучение фольклора Нусантары включено в программы для студентов, изучающих индонезийский язык в ИСАА. Обновленный курс прокладывает путь к дальнейшему более глубокому пониманию индонезийской литературы и культуры. Курс готовится к печати в виде монографии. Главными темами являются мифы и ритуалы, сказочная проза, малые жанры фольклора, демонология и современные формы индонезийского фольклора. Десять лекций озаглавлены следующим образом: 1) Духи, шаманы и оборотни: заговоры и заклинания; 2) Боги и герои: мифологические тексты; 3)Тени, куклы, маски и люди: ритуалы, сакральные представления и сказания; 4) Раксасы, отшельники и принцы: волшебные сказки; 5) Индонезийские "Золушки" и "Спящие красавицы": сказочные мотивы и реконструкции архаики; 6) Хитрый оленек канчиль и ленивый крестьянин Си Кабаян: Сказки о трикстерах; 7) Малые жанры фольклора: загадки, пантуны, паремии и анекдоты; 8) Призраки и нечисть: индонезийская демонология; 9) Детский фольклор, городской фольклор и Интернет-лор. 10) Вместо эпилога: будущее фольклора. Курс лекций включает в себя темы для дискуссий и креативных домашних заданий. Библиография и рекомендации для студентов содержит оригиналы на индонезийском и малайском, переведенные тексты и теоретические работы фольклористов, филологов и антропологов.
Ключевые слова: фольклор Индонезии; индонезийская мифология; индонезийские ритуалы; индонезийские сказки; малые жанры индонезийского фольклора; индонезийская демонология.
Cведения об авторе: Фролова Марина Владимировна - кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры филологии стран Юго-Восточной Азии, Кореи и Монголии ИСАА МГУ имени М.В. Ломоносова (e-mail: [email protected]).
СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
1. Оттен М., Банса А. Чародеи с Явы / Пер. с франц. М.И. Беленького; отв. ред. и автор послесловия М.А. Членов. М., 1973. 135 с.
2. Ревуненкова Е.В. Народы Малайзии и западной Индонезии (некоторые аспекты духовной культуры). М., 1980. 276 с.
3. Hock Soon Ng A. Sisterhood of Terror. The Monstrous Feminine of Southeast Asian Horror Cinema. A Companion to the Horror Film, ed. H.M. Benshoff, West Sussex, 2014. P. 442-459.
4. ДананджаяДж. Фольклор Индонесия. Джакарта: Пустака Графитиперс, 1986. (На индонезийском)
