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7INDIGENOUS ARCTIC PEOPLES OF YAKUTIA AND THE TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES
AT THE END OF XX CENTURY
Abstract
The relevance of the problem is caused by the need to study a wide range of problems about activity of native ethnos of the Arctic - keepers of the unique traditional cultures, who are under the threat of disappearance. The purpose of the paper is to reconstruct social-cultural situation of the indigenous people of the Russian Arctic living in Yakutia basing on materials of the international research projects. The author found out that the researches conducted at the end of the XX century allowed to define two multidirectional factors influencing the activity of native ethnos - aspiration to strengthen the role of elements of traditional way of life and simultaneous growth of influence of various modernization and assimilatory processes. The paper can be useful for preparation the generalizing works on stories of indigenous people of the Arctic, social-economic and ethnic-cultural situation in Yakutia at the end of the XX century; special courses for the students trained in the Arctic Regional Studies direction.
Keywords
Arctic, Yakutia, indigenous peoples, international scientific cooperation,
expeditions, history of science
AUTHOR
Alexander Suleymanov
PhD, senior scientific researcher The Institute for Humanities Research and Indigenous Studies of the North, Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian branch.
1, Petrovskogo Str, Yakutsk, 677007, Russia
Introduction
Recently, the increasing attention of politicians, businessmen, public figures and scientists is attracted by the Arctic. First, it is connected with existence of enormous volumes of natural resources in the region, which development seems one of the most important problems of further development of the world economy and its considerable transport and logistic potential. However, the main richness of the Arctic are not stocks of hydrocarbonic raw materials and seaports, but it is the indigenous people occupying the Arctic - carriers of the unique knowledge and traditional culture. The largest subject of the Russian Federation - the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) - is "a house" for a number of indigenous people of the Arctic: Dolgans, Chukchi, Evenks, Evens, Yukaghirs and Yakuts, and also original Russian old-timers of lower reaches of Indigirka and Kolyma. During the period considered in the paper, representatives of these people faced enormous calls, which were connected with consequences of market reforms and deep economic crisis in Russia, and with pressure of globalization processes.
Methodological Base
The methodological basis of the research are the principles of historicism, scientific objectivity and systemacity. Special methods of knowledge were used to solve the objectives: historical-typological, historical-comparative and retrospective analysis.
Results and Discussion
The rich ethnic palette of Yakutia riveted attention of scientists long ago. However, only after falling of the Iron Curtain and democratic reforms on the boundary of the 80th - the 90th of the XX century made it possible for cooperation of the Russian and foreign researchers in studying activity of indigenous people and the analysis of consequences of various transformational processes, which happened the past century.
The international conference "Languages, Culture and Future of the People of the Arctic" carried out in 1993 in Yakutsk became one of the first signs of such cooperation. The leading place was taken by the questions connected with development of native ethnos and coordination of the researches of scientists from Russia and other countries. The participant of conference G. Osherenko (Institute of the Arctic Researches, the USA) addressed to the management of Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Siberian Office (SO) of the Russian Academy of Sciences (since 1995 - Institute of Humanitarian Researches of Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) (IHR AS RS (Ya)) with the offer to cooperate within the international program for studying the Northern Sea Route (NSR) - INSROP (International Northern Sea Route Programme).
Studying various parties of possible use of NSR and, first, determination of commercial expediency of its operation was a main objective of this program. A.G. Granberg and V. I. Peresypkin noted that attraction of business community to development of the Northern Sea Route would allow Russia to keep and develop infrastructure of the Arctic navigation, to provide employment to the population of the Arctic areas and, at last, to receive a payment for a wire of foreign vessels in severe financial conditions. Besides, the program was urged to estimate potential impact of the increased intensity of navigation on ecology of the Arctic, its indigenous people and to develop recommendations about minimization and mitigation of possible negative consequences (Granberg, Peresypkin, 2006).
The experts from many countries (Great Britain, Germany, Canada, Norway, the United States, Finland, Sweden, Japan, etc.) and regions of Russia were involved in the researches.
Yakutia scientists prepared the scientific report "Influence of the Northern Sea Route on social and cultural development of indigenous people of the Arctic zone of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)". It became one of the results of the program. S. I. Boyakova (project manager), V. N. Ivanov, T.S. Ivanova, V. B. Ignatyeva, S. P. Kistenev, D. A. Shirina (IHR AS RS (Ya)), L.I. Vinokurova (Institute of Problems of Small Peoples of the North (IPSPN) of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science) and B. V. Ivanov (Institute of regional economy of AS RS (Ya)) participated in the program. The G. Osherenko mentioned earlier directed the thematic block. The researches were financed by the American side.
Participants of the project studied archival materials, the federal and republican legislation, documents of the governmental bodies of Yakutia, statistical yielded, the results of the researches conducted earlier and periodicals. They considered the most extensive circle of the questions connected with influence of development of the Northern Sea Route on indigenous people of five coastal areas (Allaikhovsky, Anabarsky, Bulunsky, Nizhnekolymsky and Ust-Yansky).
The participants of the project called the positive moments of the NSR directed, connected with economic factors: development of navigation and transport system, improvement of supply of northern areas and growth of industrial production. At the same time, experts defined the main problems of indigenous people caused by demographic changes (excess of concentration of the population, admissible for ecological capacity of the Arctic ecosystems, negative impact of new settlers on traditional foundations of indigenous people); deterioration of social conditions (bad condition of infrastructure objects); ecological damage (reduction of the areas of cervine pastures, environmental pollution); the intensive industrial development, which caused a serious loss to traditional economic base; the pursued state policy (restriction for native ethnos to participate in work of industrial facilities, "cultural revolution", collectivization, the state monopoly for fur purchase, etc.) and shaking of the system of cultural values (emergence of the generation, which is not knowing the native language and traditions of the people). The scientists expressed confidence that "expansion of the international use of the NSR would aggravate the existing social problems of the region". At the same time, the researchers offered possible ways of leveling such costs: improvement of the existing legislation, carrying out environmental monitoring, organization of a network of the protected territories and water areas, creation of special fund (from the income from operation of the Northern Sea Route) to support social programs for development of indigenous people and tourist programs (Boyakova, Vinokurova, Shirina, 1996).
In 1993, 1998 and 1999, N. B. Vakhtin (The European University, St. Petersburg), E.V. Golovko (Institute of Linguistic Researches of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg) and P. Schweitzer (University of Alaska, Fairbanks, the USA) studied the problem of ethnic consciousness of the Russian old residents of Yakutia, the happening ethnic processes and social-economic situation in places of their compact accommodation - villages the Russian Ust'ye and Pokhodsk. The researches included collecting field material and carrying out interviewing among local population (42 persons were interviewed), the analysis of documents from the republican and regional archives in Yakutsk, Cherskiy (Nizhnekolymsky area) and Chokurdah (Allaikhovsky area).
The scientists noted that after "several years of confusion and misunderstanding" there was rather successful integration of the main economic entities of the Russian Ust'ye (the tribal community with the same name) and Pokhodsk (state farm "Pokhodsky") in market conditions, led to "relative economic prosperity". At the same time, the researchers established the ethnic self-names used by the Russian old residents ("mestnorusskiye", "russkoustyst'intsi", "kolymchane", "pokhodchane", etc.) and terms applied in relation to the Russians, who moved from "continent" ("Russian visitors ", "the real Russians"). The supervision made by researchers is represented curious: on the one hand "own" clothes and food were represented by the Russian old residents more civilized in comparison with other native communities of the northeast of Yakutia; on the other hand, they were opposed to clothes and food of " Russians visitors " as traditional is opposed to new. This fact, according to scientists, most brightly showed "kernel" of a picture of the world of the Russian old residents and their ethnic consciousness, as "keepers of civilized tradition" from "surrounding wildness" and its defenders "from a profanirovaniye "new trends"" (Vakhtin, Golovko, Schweitzer, 2004).
The considerable attention to a question of ethnic consciousness was paid during the Russian-German expedition "Anabarsky dolgans: history and present" in 1995.
The germans O. Turza and Ya. Turza (Institute of Ethnology of Freiburg university) and the Russian A.I. Savvinov (IPSPN) participated in the expedition. The scientists collected field materials on language and ethnography of northern Yakut reindeer breeders, Dolgans, studied the problems of ethnic consciousness of these people. It was found out that most of respondents identify themselves only as Dolgans and the language
- as Dolgan (as it is known, these problems in the scientific world still have different opinions) (Helimsky, 2001). The researchers paid separate attention to the analysis of the condition of traditional branches of managing (mainly, reindeer breeding), influences of social-economic changes of the first half of the 1990th and defined the main tendency in life of local population - aspiration to refusal of a nomadic way of life in favor of the settled one (Turza, Turga, 1996/1997).
In 1996, IPSPN of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science and the National Center of Scientific Researches of France on cooperation signed agreement within the "Environment and Cultural Heritage of Small Peoples of the North of Yakutia" project (The Current Archive of the IHRISN).
The analysis of demographic, social and cultural transformations of native ethnos in the conditions of environmental changes and threats accompanying them was the purpose of the project (The Current Archive of the IHRISN). The National Center of Scientific Researches of France and Institute of Polar Researches after Robert Scott financed the researches (Great Britain, researches of 2000).
The first expedition on the project to the Nizhnekolymsky area was in 1997. The staff of the National Center of Scientific Researches of France was represented by B. Chichlo (head) and J. Robert-Lamblin; C. Malet from University of Bordeaux V.A. Robbek (IPSPN of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science) and O. Grigorieva (The Yakut State University after M. K. Ammosov, translator) took part in the expedition. The researches were conducted in settlements Cherskiy, Kolyma and Andryushkino (The Current Archive of the IHRISN).
The French experts explained a choice of this area by the fact that it is "ideal model for studying indigenous people of Far North Siberia", on the example of which it is possible to track "dynamics of settling of the Arctic territories of Siberia, evolution of autochthonic ethnos and the modern interethnic relations". Yukaghirs, Evens, Chukchi, descendants of the first Russian path-findeders, Yakuts, representatives of other nationalities (Ukrainians, Belarusians) live in the village of Andryushkino side by side. Here communal and patrimonial farms work.
In activity of 1997expedition, it is possible to allocate four directions: the researches of demographic situation for definition of the changes happened after disorder of the Soviet Union (scientists revealed big outflow of the people, who arrived to these places in the 60th - the 80th of the XX century from the western regions of the USSR). The special attention was paid to family problems: the researches on the special questionnaire for the first time applied by J. Robert-Lamblin among the Greenland Eskimos were conducted (expeditions of the 1960th - the 1990th). It was made for subsequent analysis of the received materials - to compare evolution of a family and transformation of its main values (matrimony and children) in different ethnic and cultural conditions of the Arctic.
Studying the health state of local population and ecological wellbeing of environment was the second vector of the expedition. The scientists collected tests of drinking water for the analysis of its quality; air, soil, plants and meat of animals - for measurement of radiation.
The third direction included the research of a power supply system, flavoring habits and flavoring reactions of various groups of population (on the basis of the technique applied earlier in Greenland). It is interesting that features of taste perception were studied by the French scientists as the result of adaptive processes of a person to environment (metabolic needs of the individual and biochemical structure of the food resources, which are available in the nearby district). To reveal the difference between genetically inherited flavoring reactions and the acquired habits, influence on food of local population of such sociocultural factors as religious ban, family and ethnic traditions, culinary fashion was considered. As a result of the carried-out researches, the scientists
revealed radical distinction of flavoring habits of people younger than 30 years and more senior generation, which the experts explained with influence of the alien population, formation of system of boarding schools and promotion of the western culinary fashion thanks to development of mass media (Malet, Chichlo, Robert-Lamblin, 2003; Robert-Lamblin, Hladik, Pasquet, 1999).
The fourth activity of the expedition is the research of the interethnic relations. The scientists carried out questioning of local population concerning ethnic self-identification, tolerance to representatives of other ethnos; studied traditional ceremonies of indigenous ethnic groups of the North. At the same time, for clarification of ethnic preferences at the spouse's choice experts investigated interethnic marriages (The Current Archive of the IHRISN). By the results of the researches, some authors came to a conclusion that despite rather long accommodation of the studied people in one territory, there are serious distinctions in a way of life of these ethnos (clothes, food, ritual practice), aspiration to originality (desire to find the spouse from the people) and the main thing remained that decisive impact on activity of native ethnos is made not by environment, but culture (Chichlo, 1999; Robert-Lamblin, 2007).
The next stage of the project (1997-1999) was devoted to the analysis of the data obtained during the expedition and examination of the taken samples in special laboratories. It should be noted that the French experts did not reveal the raised maintenance of radiation in samples, however quality of drinking water was the lowest (The Current Archive of the IHRISN).
In 2000, there was the second expedition on the "Environment and Cultural Heritage of Small Peoples of the North of Yakutia" project to Sredniy and Nizhnekolymsky areas. Together with IPSPN of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science and the National Center of Scientific Researches of France, the Institute of Polar Researches after Robert Scott (scientist - K. Male) took part in the expedition. The participants of the expedition were the scientific director B. P. Chichlo, J.. Robert-Lamblin, K. Male, V.A. Robbek and O. Grigorieva (The Current Archive of the IHRISN). The researches were conducted in Srednekolymsk, Beryozovka, Andryushkino and Kolyma settlements.
The program of the researches was added to expand geography of the researches, implement comparative researches not only on the temporary principle (identification of changes for the period between expeditions 1997 and 2000), but also on territorial. Now it included studying of ethic-ecological practice of reindeer breeders societies. For the rest the subject and technique of the researches repeated the previous expedition.
Studying ethnic-ecological practice of reindeer breeders, scientists concentrated the attention on problems of broadcasting knowledge from generation to generation and adaptation of reindeer-breeding farms to changes of environment. Life of reindeer breeders was studied: housekeeping methods, events; the list of the made species of fish and animals was made (The Current Archive of the IHRISN.
Together with employees of IPSPN, specialists of Institute of Ethnology after Max Planck (Germany) tried to investigate the other problem in lifes of reindeer breeders, namely consequences of market reforms of the last decade of the XX century. Contact between these organizations was established in 2000. The parties expressed intention to develop cooperation on a scientific exchange, carrying out expeditions, because "the world community is interested in the solution of survival problems of indigenous ethnic groups of the Arctic and the North", (The Current Archive of the IHRISN).
In 2000, there was the Russian-German expedition to the Anabarsky area, in which A. Ventsel (Institute after Max Planck), D. I. Syrovatsky and L.N. Romanova (IPSPN) took part (The Current Archive of the IHRISN) took place.
During the expedition, the scientists carried out questioning of local population on problems of ethnic identity, collected field materials about conditions of reindeer
breeding, material security of reindeer-breeding crews, their structure, methods of housekeeping and social problems. The experts paid the main attention to the analysis of economic relations of fishers, hunters and reindeer breeders and their transformation upon transition from a planned economy to market economy in the 1990th. For this purpose, the researchers studied archival materials in the settlement of Yuryung-Haya (protocols of board meetings and general meeting of state farm) and carried out interviewing of locals. The scientists revealed active penetration of the market relations into the hunting and fishing farms better adapted for the new economic conditions than reindeer-breeding. Besides, the experts noted the traditionally big role of tribal relations in economy of local population, which value weakened as a result of creation of collective farms and state farms a little, but increased in Post-Soviet time. They came to a conclusion that related communications "became a basis for distribution and access to survival resources, when official structures were inefficient" (Ventsel, 2006).
The considerable part of the "Land Use and Self-government of Indigenous People in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)" project was devoted to efficiency assessment of activity of governmental bodies and the acts adopted by them.
The tripartite contract on cooperation within this project was signed in 1997 between IPSPN of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science, YaSU and University of Northern British Columbia (Canada) for analyzing a current state of management and land use in tribal communities of indigenous ethnic groups in Yakutia.
V.A. Robbek (IPSPN), O. A. Lazebnik (YaSU), G. Fondahl and G. Poelzer (University of Northern British Columbia - UNBC) were the main performers of the "Land Use and Self-government of Indigenous People in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)" project. A.N. Avakumova, M. Yu. Prisyazhniy (YaSU), T.E. of Andreeva (IPSPN), G. Martin and D. Hynes (UNBC) took part in field researches besides the called experts. The researches were financed by the Canadian party (The Current Archive of the IHRISN).
Its participants explained the attention to the problems considered within the project to that since 1991, in the Soviet Union, and then in the Russian Federation, the legislation regulating the rights of the small people for the earth and resources "underwent essential changes" both on federal, and on regional levels. Legal acts, which legally expanded possibilities of native ethnos to exercise control on territories of the primordial accommodation were adopted. And the level of efficiency of these legislative norms significantly varies on all territory of the country (The Current Archive of the LECS). In this regard, the experts paid the attention to Yakutia, which was "in vanguard of adoption of laws" by the rights of native ethnos in the last decade of the XX century (The Current Archive of the IHRISN).
Assessing the federal and republican legislation, policy of the authorities for traditional environmental management, self-government of native ethnos, the researchers paid considerable attention to studying history of alienation of lands, plantings of territorial-management systems of management during the Soviet period and to their influence on a modern situation. G. Fondahl noted that if tribal communities were formed on the basis of traditional territorial moving, rural and regional administrations are connected with administrative division of the Soviet era (Fondahl, 1998).
Besides, the experts devoted part of the researches to studying history of economic activity and moving of indigenous ethnic groups of Yakutia at the time of the USSR, the defining influence on which, according to the participants of the project, rendered planting of collective farms and restrictions connected with this phenomenon in movement of their workers (The Current Archive of the IHRISN).
The basis of the project researches was field researches in tribal communities of three native ethnos: Yukaghirs, Evens and Evenks. Scientists carried out expeditions to the village of Nelemnoye (Verkhnekolymsky area, 1997) - the place of compact
accommodation of Yukaghirs; the village of Beryozovka (Srednekolymsky area, 1998) - one of settlements, where language, culture, traditional tenor of Evens life remained; the village of Hatystyr (Aldan area, 1998) and Tyanya settlement (Olyokma area, 1999) - the settlements of Evenks. In total during expeditions the experts talked with 173 persons, each was asked 75 questions in a biographical form. The technique of the poll was developed by the Canadian researchers and added by the Russian scientists. The answers were grouped according to territorial sign, sex, age and nationality (indigenous ethnic groups were grouped; Yakuts; Russians and other not radical ethnos) (The Current Archive of the LECS).
The main goal of the field researches is the analysis of real efficiency of those changes happened in legal base of the land relations and local government of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in the first half of the 90th of the XX century for indigenous ethnic groups. In this regard, the scientists tried to define the concrete success achieved by native ethnos in the sphere of increasing control over traditional territories of accommodation and to reveal difficulties, which the Avtokhtona had to face in attempt of realization of the preferences provided by the laws. At the same time, the researchers sought to learn opinion of local population on key problems of activity of communities (importance of preservation of traditional types of managing and activity of nomadic tribal communities for protection of a way of life of indigenous people, overall performance of local administration) (The Current Archive of the LECS).
The scientists found out what types of traditional activity in venues of the researches natives consider the most important. If in Beryozovka, Hatystyr and Tyanya it were reindeer breeding and hunting, in Nelemnom - fishery. Locals noted the importance of preservation of a traditional way of life of indigenous people and need of growth of influence of the Sanhedrim on decisions of the head of local administration. They also called a community to be a preferable form of self-government. Thus most of respondents recognized the new laws and resolutions adopted for protection of the rights of native ethnos to be not effective and not reflecting a real situation.
The considerable part of questions concerned a problem of land ownership. The primary part of respondents supported that the earth has to be in collective possession and expressed negative attitude to private form of ownership. At the same time, inhabitants almost unanimously recognized that in territories of traditional accommodation of indigenous ethnic groups the right of priority land use has to belong to native ethnos (The Current Archive of the LECS).
At the same time, the scientists carried out mapping of areas of traditional environmental management of indigenous people in the studied settlements. For comparison of the territories, which are legislatively defined under traditional environmental management and places of the actual maintaining by native ethnos of traditional economy, locals were offered to place badges with the image of object of activity on the map of the adjacent area (for example, a badge of fish - fishery) (The Current Archive of the IHRISN). As a result, it turned out that the lands allocated by the legislation under traditional environmental management often did not coincide with those lands, on which indigenous people throughout centuries conducted the activity - the industrial enterprises have already worked on many of these territories.
On the basis of the data received during the "Land Use and Self-government of Indigenous People in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)" project, its participants developed recommendations about improvement of relations between communities, republican and federal authorities, which provided accurate determination of communities powers, differentiation of jurisdiction areas with local administration, the accounting of a role of the patrimonial relations, creation of the Sanhedrims and increase of legal literacy of the
population (The Current Archive of the IHRISN). Besides, the scientists made a series of electronic cards of tribal communities of Yakutia (NA RS(Y)).
Conclusion
Despite a variety of the directions of the researches within the research initiatives considered above, it is represented that all of them had in the basis one uniting moment - aspiration of scientists to find out modern position of indigenous people in the conditions of the sociocultural transformations, which were happening and are happening in the world. Actually, the experts established that native ethnos of Yakutia are influenced by two multidirectional factors as a result of impact of industrial development, disorder of the Soviet Union, an economic crisis of the 1990th and in general global civilization processes. On the one hand, these people are considerably influenced by the traditional device of life: researchers noted strengthening of tribal communications, aspiration to increase value of community and preservation of cultural originality. On the other hand, there are active penetration of the market relations and transition from nomadic way of life to settled one, thus violation of the mechanism of social-cultural continuity between generations of indigenous people is obvious.
Recommendations
The received results can be used for preparation the generalizing works on stories of indigenous people of the Arctic, social-economic and ethnic-cultural situation in Yakutia at the end of the XX century; special courses for the students trained in the Arctic Regional Studies direction.
REFERENCES
Boyakova, S.I., Shirina, D.A., Vinokurova, L.I. et al. (1996) Influence of the Northern Sea Route on Social and Cultural Development of Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic Zone of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia), INSROP Working Paper, Vol. 49, 5-67 pp.
Chichlo, B. (1999) Le district de Nijnekolymski: population, renniculture, ethnicité, Sibérie II, Histoire, Culture, Littérature, Paris, Institut d'Études Slaves, pp. 475-502.
Fondahl, G. (1998) Traditional nature management and administration in the Russian Federation and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) http:IIwww.npolar.noIansipraIrussianIItemsIGeography_progrR.html
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ENTERPRISE MANAGEMENT IN CONDITIONS OF CRISIS
Abstract
The article deals with the stages to identify the crisis in business economics. Also it gives the algorithm of financial recovery of an enterprise.
Keywords
anti-crisis management, enterprise, structural analysis, plan out of the crisis, scientific approaches
AUTHORS
Inna G. Ivanova
PhD, Associate Professor Kuban State Agrarian University. 13, Kalinina Str., Krasnodar, 350004, Russia.
E-mail: inna_ivanova_2010@mail.ru
Irina M. Voloshina
Student. Kuban State Agrarian University. 13, Kalinina Str., Krasnodar, 350004, Russia.
E-mail: Irina.voloschin@yandex.ru
Introduction
1.1 Urgency of the problem
A variety of actions to create and select strategy of anti-crisis management is related to unified operations to ensure the stable development. Also it is related to approve short-time insights to guarantee the survival of the company to preserve existing capacities.
