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M.V. Lukanina, L.K. Salieva (Moscow)
IMPACT POTENTIAL OF POLITICAL INTERNET-MEMES: YU.V. ROZHDESTVENSKIY'S THEORY OF RHETORIC
Abstract. The article examines communicative features of political Internet-memes, their rhetorical nature and considers them as a new genre of political Internet-communication. The research advances the framework of Yuriy V. Rozhdestvenskiy's theory of rhetoric to apply it to genre specification of Internet-memes with the focus on political communication. The method of rhetorical analysis helps to uncover the manipulative potential of political Internet-memes and views such communication as an integral complex framework from the author's intention regarding the speech act to the final influence on the target audience. Political Internet-meme is considered through the prism of the following parameters: (1) Ethos (i.e., contextual aspect): a) Status-role characteristics of the parties (the author, the distance, topic relevance), b) Type of communication, c) Theme; (2) Pathos: Intention, (2.1) Pathos - Ethos: a) Type of argumentation, b) Evaluating (evaluative point of view); (3) Logos: (3.1) Ethos - Logos: Author's image of the genre, (3.2) Pathos - Logos: Textual aspect (topic elaboration, argumentation, style, composition etc.). The research outlines and describes features that characterize the structure of the political Internet meme ethos, pathos and logos as well as their inter-determination, thus making the Internet meme a powerful tool of public opinion management. Being a product of political public relations, political meme becomes a phenomenon of digital mass culture.
Key words: Internet-meme; political communication; theory of rhetoric; public opinion management.
М.В. Луканина, Л.К. Салиева (Москва)
Потенциал воздействия политических интернет-мемов: теория риторики Ю.В. Рождественского
Аннотация. Настоящая статья посвящена рассмотрению коммуникативных свойств политического интернет-мема, их риторической природы как нового жанра политической интернет-коммуникации. Исследование выполнено риторическим методом в рамках современного риторического подхода, изложенного Ю.В. Рождественским, для определения жанровой соотнесенности Интернет-мемов в политической коммуникации. Риторический метод позволяет показать манипулятивный потенциал политических Интернет-мемов и описать политическую коммуникацию с использованием интернет-мемов во всей полноте от замысла создателя высказывания до влияния этого высказывания на аудиторию. В статье политический интернет-мем рассмотрен по следующим параметрам: 1) этос (условия коммуникации): а) статусно-ролевые характеристики сторон (автор, дистанция, важность темы), б) тип коммуникации, в) тема; 2) пафос: намере-
ние, 2.1. пафос - этос: а) вид аргументации, б) оценка (оценочная точка зрения); 3) логос: 3.1 этос - логос: жанровый образ автора, 3.2. пафос - логос: текст (разработка темы, аргументации, стиль, построение и композиция и т.д.). В работе выведены и описаны черты, которые характеризуют целостное и комплексное видение политического интернет-мема через этос, пафос и логос, а также их взаимообусловленность, и делают политические Интернет-мемы мощным инструментом управления общественным мнением. Будучи продуктом политических связей с общественностью, политический интернет-мем в итоге становится явлением цифровой массовой культуры.
Ключевые слова: Интернет-мем; политическая коммуникация; теория риторики; управление общественным мнением.
Introduction
Internet-memes have become part and parcel of modern Internet-communication, being increasingly used in political communication. Political Internet-memes are considered a new tool of political influence within the framework of Internet-communication, with a growing body of research on political and social implications. The relevance of studying the potential of political Internet-memes can be attributed not only to its frequency of use and viral character, but also to its rhetorical nature and genre characteristics.
The research aims to put political memes into a rhetorical-communicative framework, which will outline the impact potential of Internet-memes as inherent part of their nature.
Literature Review
Internet-memes have long become the center of scholastic attention, being studied as part of digital space, having spread from biology into sociology, psychology, linguistics, philosophy. Depending on the field of knowledge, the definitions of memes have gone far from a cultural unit or idea that "gets replicated" [Dawkins 1990].
In digital scholarship, memes are seen as a textual genre, putting forward the notion of virality, a key to their functioning. Milner [Milner 2016] and Shifman [Shifman 2013, 2014, 2019] link their notion of the meme to the spread, distribution, replication, and propagation of memes in digital networks. Shifman [Shifman 2014, 18] defines memes as digital units of popular culture that "scale into a shared social phenomenon" via circulation, imitation or transformation online, while Milner also puts memes into participatory discourse framework [Milner 2016].
From a linguistic point of view, Internet-memes are considered as complex Internet signs with a standard form (image with a text) [Канашина 2018] or "a type of creolized texts", combining verbal and non-verbal components [Часовский 2015, 125].
A narrative approach defines memes as "partial stories that reflect, capture
and contribute to wider storylines" [de Saint Laurent et al. 2021, 1].
In the Russian science Internet-memes have been classified from a number of different perspectives. One approach is to identify different topics, forming the basis of the message. Kun'shchikov S. et al. [Куньщиков и др. 2019] single out such types as personal memes, situational memes, syntactic, comparative, existential, metamemes and so on. Another approach by Shchurina classifies memes according to their forms of expression: verbal, non-verbal and hybrid units [Щурина 2014]. Shomova S. uses the criteria of deliberate and purposeful effect to classify memes into public folklore and political memes [Шомова 2015].
Methods
The analysis of political Internet-memes will be made within the rhetorical framework of "the theory of rhetoric" developed by Yuriy V. Rozhdestvenskiy [Рождественский 2015]. He distinguishes the following types of electronic / digital communication:
(1) mass information (newspapers, radio, TV, documentary films),
(2) mass advertising,
(3) mass culture,
(4) informatics (automated control systems, information retrieval systems, automatic text processing and generating systems, the Internet).
The main analytical instruments used within this methodological framework are Aristotelian ethos, pathos and logos. The notions of ethos, pathos and logos have always been central to rhetoric, though their definitions and scope have been perceived differently. In Rozhdestvenskiy's theory these categories were reimagined and expanded in accordance with the new focus of rhetoric, which now includes not only oral public speech (as at the time of Aristotle), but the entire practice of communication.
Rozhdestvenskiy looks at ethos from a broader perspective, that of the communicative act. He defines ethos as the audience's requirements for a certain ethical stance from the speaker, as the terms that the audience puts forward to the speaker [Рождественский 2015, 66]. In other words, ethos is the conditions of the communication act, which include (1) the genre with special emphasis placed on the genre's author's image, (2) the context of the communication: the occasion, the time of day, the mood of the audience, the physical location, (3) the theme of the communication, (4) the audience. Whether or not the terms are met determines whether or not the communicated text is appropriate and effective.
As in the case of ethos, Rozhdestvenskiy considers pathos within the framework of the communicative act; he sees it as the intention of the addresser to achieve his or her purpose by instilling certain emotions in the audience, i.e., as the speaker's intention. Such focus shift seems crucial nowadays. In the post-truth media landscape it is vital for people to be aware that creating unrest, confusion, anger, disorientation is a political tool and that it is done intentionally.
Logos is understood as linguistic, compositional and semiotic means used to embody the sender's intention and communicate his or her thoughts.
These categories are interdependent: pathos is controlled by ethos, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, is constrained by the linguistic / semiotic means that the sender uses in order to establish rapport with the addressee, i.e., logos, which in its turn in addition to the expression of the sender's intention (pathos) requires the use of linguistic / semiotic means appropriate to the addressee, speaking context, topic, author's image of the genre etc. (ethos) [Рождественский 2015, 66-67].
The dependence of pathos from ethos results in the possibility of three kinds of pathos: (1) dialectics, (2) sophistry, and (3) eristics [Рождественский 2015, 80-88], which are characterized by the following functions: (1) to prove truth with the due respect to the audience, (2) to achieve one's own objectives, deceiving, but imitating the search for truth and pleasing the audience, (3) to achieve one's own goals despising the audience. The application of these pathos types in a particular speech act depends on the type of speech. The following logos means are used respectively: (1) syllogisms, (2) syllogisms and sophisms, (3) eristic means. In those eristic types of speech which are built on information gatekeeping or "fact sifting" and are based on narrative techniques (that public relations texts refer to), pathos is manifested in the ethical goal, to shape a certain evaluative attitude to the topic raised, characters and the actions they take [Рождественский 2015, 202].
As a subtype of digital communication, the political meme may be defined within the framework of the following aspects:
(1) Ethos (contextual aspect)
(a) Status-role characteristics of the parties (the author, the distance, topic relevance)
(b) Type of communication
(c) Theme
(2) Pathos (intentional aspect)
(a) Purpose
2.1. Pathos - Ethos
(b) Type of argumentation
(c) Evaluating (evaluative point of view)
(3) Logos
(a) Ethos - Logos
3.1. Author's image of the genre
(b) Pathos - Logos
3.2. Textual aspect (topic elaboration, argumentation, style, composition etc.).
Findings
The article aims to answer the following research questions: How can the theory of rhetoric enlighten on the impact potential with regard to political In-
ternet-memes? How does the meme rhetorical nature contribute to its impact potential and public opinion management efficiency? How do memes function in political communication?
To assess the impact potential of the Internet-memes, the framework of Rozhdestvenskiy's rhetoric theory will be applied to the analysis of meme functioning. Some features will demonstrate the inherent interconnection among the three key aspects.
Ethos
The status-role characteristics of the communication parties show stereotypical mass communication behavior with the author being anonymous in most cases or in the long run.
The researchers distinguish two types of Internet-meme authorship. The first type refers to public authorship, when Internet-memes function as a contemporary folklore [KaHamHHa 2018]. The development and evolution of Internet communication up to its contemporary stage has brought to life a new generation of Internet users who are Internet-literate and keen on producing Internet-content of their own (the so-called user-generated content). Internet-memes might have an 'established' author, however, in the majority of cases the authorship remains anonymous or in the cause of viral spread becomes irrelevant.
This Internet folklore allows to digest realia and express public opinion by creating Internet-memes. Viral spread of political memes can be used as an indicator of public mood and preferences.
The second type is political authorship, when Internet-memes operate as a mechanism of political pressure to achieve certain goals. Political Internet-memes might be attributed to a certain source or can be anonymous, opening up manipulative potential for journalists, spin doctors or public relations practitioners and a variety of other related fields. Memes have already become common to political campaigns, elections, information wars and other forms of political competitive behavior. In the majority of cases, it is difficult or impossible for the general public to trace a message to its author due to technical capacities and lack of access to personal data bases. It should also be mentioned that 'folklore-type' Internet memes can be used in political campaigns. Anonymity serves a very important role in political communication by eliminating barriers to the freedom of expression, which might be particularly valuable in case of opposition to strong political influence, pressure or censorship. The freedom of expression often turns into the freedom from ethics of expression. The latter is paired with the appeal to ethics / values. This along with the fact that memes are transmitted via friends or social nets makes them trustworthy.
So, regardless of its authorship, a meme then is to be spread, replicated and sometimes modified. This is achieved by Internet-communication, having no boundaries and open access. Internet-memes as a kind of spreadable media are known for their viral coverage of the vast audience, which allows to form and mould public opinion. Progressing computer literacy, on the one hand, allows
Internet-users to spread Internet-memes which they find worthy immediately to a number of people, triggering massive reach. This dispersion of information is uncontrollable and chaotic. On the other hand, users themselves create Internet-memes as well as variations of the Internet-memes they liked.
Regarding the type of communication, it is virtual and hypertextual. Hypertext and the ability to make creolized intertextual texts create a field of associations, linking original message to a set of newly created memes. The new content is quickly integrated into a new symbiosis. Intertextuality of Internet-memes, embedded references to a number of sources and the sources interaction create juxtaposition of meanings or expansion of meaning.
Interactive nature of Internet communication gives scope for feedback with comments (whether positive or negative), while open access and lack of censorship allow to transform the initial message to incorporate new meanings.
Topical theme serves as a trigger for memes viral spread, fueling interest in the audience. The reference to current newsworthy events, quotes or texts is a key feature, which requires adequate background knowledge of the audience, in other words, timeliness and political relevance [Literat & van den Berg 2019].
Pathos
Pathos comes into its full force through some of the inherent features of the meme described above. Its evaluative intention and manipulative character combined with a humorous form are mechanisms of public opinion management. Pathos of any meme has a complex structure: with evaluation (often negative, on the one hand) and humour (a positive emotion, on the other hand). Shiftman [Shiftman 2019] notes that memes are effective in articulating values, they are part of "visual political rhetoric" [Huntington 2016, 77]. However, political memes do not only shape political perceptions, but also alter political behavior. The political meme can be considered an epitome of eristic argumentation, similar to that of advertising [Салиева 2020, 78-84].
On the whole, political memes drastically affect critical thinking of the audience as memes are usually catchy, viral, appealing to the sense of humour or emotions. All these factors set a favourable ground for manipulation.
The scope of intentions of political Internet-memes ranges from expressing public opinion, public protest, anti-establishment political critique (e.g., [Mak-hortykh & González Aguilar 2020]) to "private" political interests of political campaigns, information wars, image building or political rivalry.
Logos
Ethos - Logos
As a type of mass communication, a political Internet-meme bestows its author with such characteristics as identification and servility. "The author's image in mass communication, like in journalism, directly relates the author to a mass communication recipient... The author constructs his / her image to
address the whole society and each of its members individually ('We work for you') <.. .> the identification with the recipient will be combined with servility ('We give you information you need and care about')" [Рождественский 2015, 167]. The identification of the author with the recipient in case of political Internet-meme communication is even more profound than in advertising (including the viral one), in which the author is also concealed. However, the recipient in advertising communication can not become a co-author in contrast to political Internet-memes. Pathos - Logos
An important feature of the political Internet-meme content is its secondary nature and multi-layer structure. Any meme is based on some primary message, be it a quote from a speech, a political action, or something else. This primary data is transformed in a meme to link background knowledge to new evaluative connotations. As a sign, meme has the form that serves as a link between the background knowledge of the situation and a number of associations and evaluations. A meme focuses on and emphasizes certain points of an original message, usually in a comic, ironic, or sarcastic manner. These lenses give direction to interpretation of the original, with either supplementing it functionally or opposing it altogether. Sometimes, the focus of a meme may altogether shift to different political, economic or ethical problems at stake.
The form of any meme, its evaluation engages certain stylistic means, such as metaphors, hyperbole, allusions, irony, play upon words, citations, all of which have a manipulative effect (as in propaganda). The political Internet meme in its entirety is a metaphor creating an extremely suggestive image.
The composition of Internet-memes usually incorporates a photo / photo(s) or a picture / picture(s) with a corresponding title and message. All parts of the content are perceived simultaneously and instantaneously (as opposed to linear texts). As a result, the conscious critical faculty is by-passed and the meme's ideas and suggestions are assimilated by the non-critical, subconscious mind.
Stylistically, the message is informal, with elements of colloquial style, which creates the effect of informal communication, and is also a requirement of viral spread across a vast heterogeneous audience.
To conclude, the complex structure of the political Internet meme ethos, pathos and logos as well as their ambivalence manifested in such features (which are actually the carnival culture ones) as belonging to mass popular culture; the ability to reach large audiences fast; virality;
uncertainty / irrelevance of authorship;
the possibility of neglecting ethical and legal standards;
identification and servility of the author's image;
topical theme;
complex pathos structure;
the ability to attract the addressee's attention in a flash; the ability to by-pass critical thinking faculty;
evaluation; humour;
the secondary nature and multilayer structure of meme logos;
suggestiveness;
hypertextuality;
metaphoricity;
informality;
a virtually unlimited ability to create images on the basis of any segment of both physical and digital reality;
practical absence of a new substantive meaning while forming a new ethical outlook on the problem, the subject matter, etc. and arousing a new emotion in relation to the problem, the subject matter, etc.
make the Internet meme a powerful tool of public opinion management.
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Maria V. Lukanina, Lomonosov Moscow State University; National University of Science and Technology "MISiS".
Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor at the Department of international communication (School of World Politics), Associate Professor at the Department of Modern Languages and Communication Technologies at NUST "MISiS". Research interests: media studies, theory of communication, public relations, foreign language teaching.
E-mail: mvlukaninag@gmail.com
--
ORCID ID: 0000-0003-1303-0084
Ludmila K. Salieva, Lomonosov Moscow State University.
Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor at the Department of international communication, School of World Politics. Research interests: communication theory, rhetoric, stylistics, media research, public relations, foreign language teaching, translation theory, literary criticism.
E-mail: liudmila.salieva@gmail.com
ORCID ID: 0000-0003-2369-8555
Луканина Мария Владимировна, Московский государственный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова, Национальный Исследовательский Технологический Университет «МИСиС».
Кандидат филологических наук, доцент. Доцент кафедры международной коммуникации факультета мировой политики, доцент кафедры иностранных языков и коммуникативных технологий НИТУ «МИСиС». Научные интересы: теория коммуникации, стилистика, медиа исследования, связи с общественностью, преподавание иностранных языков.
E-mail: mvlukaninag@gmail.com
ORCID ID: 0000-0003-1303-0084
Салиева Людмила Казимовна, Московский государственный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова.
Кандидат филологических наук, доцент. Доцент кафедры международной коммуникации факультета мировой политики. Научные интересы: теория коммуникации, риторика, стилистика, медиа исследования, связи с общественностью, преподавание иностранных языков, теория перевода, теория литературы.
E-mail: liudmila.salieva@gmail.com
ORCID ID: 0000-0003-2369-8555
