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adverbial clause. These make the sentence short and striking.
3. Extensive use of Imperatives and Modals
The imperatives and modals are widely used in providing instructions which comprise most technical manuals that engineers have to read, interpret or design.
Conclusion
English for Engineering has a specific style. It is rather difficult to decide what English to teach to
engineers. First, there are numerous kinds ofengineers (civil engineers, architectural engineer, mechanical engineer, chemical engineer etc) with widely different field of work and terminology. Furthermore most English for Engineers courses are often for people still in full- time education who do not know yet what job they might do exactly. As a result knowing the main grammatical and lexical features of engineering English may help instructors in designing their syllabuses and in choosing learning materials.
References:
1. Peng Jia “The Characteristics and Translation of English for Science and Technology (EST)” (2005)
2. http://www.usingenglish.com/articles/how-to-teach-english-for-engineers.html
3. Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. (1998). Developments in ESP: A Multi-Disciplinary Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4. Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A Learner-Centered Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5. Mohammad Al Towaim, “Grammatical and Lexical Features of Scientific and Technical Language” retrieved 10.07.015: http://www.scribd.com/doc/193396618/Grammatical-and-Lexical-Features-of-Scientific-and-Technical#scribd
6. Writing in Engineering (Language and Learning Online), referred on 12.06.2016, http://www.monash. edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/index.xml
7. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/transmission
8. http://www. Usingenglish.com\glossary.html
Cenaj Mirjeta, Sports University of Tirana PhD student Faculty of Foreign Languages, English Department
E-mail: [email protected]
Harmonization of teaching strategies with students’ learning styles in the ESP classroom
Abstract: Evaluation of students’ learning styles is important as it can enable teachers to make changes in their classrooms in order to improve their teaching process. In the light of this I have carried out a survey on learning styles of my students at Sports University of Tirana. The study aims to identify the way these students perceive information in the English language classroom; through which sensory channel external information is most effectively perceived, how they process information, and how they progress toward understanding and mainly how they acquire foreign language best. In other words “How do they learn English best”. The sample of this study are 160 first year students, first-year bachelor students in the academic year 2014-2015, they were asked to answer to a 30-item questionnaire, Willing’s (1988) questionnaire titled “How do you learn best?”, the learner types identified by Willing and the learning methods mentioned in the questionnaire are comprehensive, applicable and relevant to language learning contexts. The data gathered by this 4-point Likert scale questionnaire was processed by SPSS package and Reliability Statistics Results showed a high value of internal consistency (alpha cronbach =0.907) for the 30 items of the ques-
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Harmonization of teaching strategies with students’ learning styles in the ESP classroom
tionnaire. The study of the general learning style preferences of the students will result in adaption of the course learning tasks, teaching techniques and methods that suit the students’ preferences and their learning styles.
Keywords: teaching strategies, classroom activities, learning styles, ESP classroom.
Introduction
Teachers are aware of the fact that learners have different preferences i. e. styles in the way they process, perceive and understand information. Thus, being aware of these preferences is vital in the teaching and learning process. Moreover, differences in learning styles affect, either by helping or hindering learners’ intentional cognition and active engagement in the learning process. Oxford [1] notes that “It is important for learners to be aware of their own styles in order to take advantage of the personal strengths and balance weaknesses with appropriate strategies.”
Furthermore, knowledge of these preferences helps teachers to implement suitable methods in order to satisfy students’ preferences that would lead to successful language acquisition. According to Reid [2], “Identifying the learning styles preferences of non-native speakers may have wide-ranging implications in the areas of curriculum design, materials development, student orientation, and teacher training”.
According to Willing [3], “research shows that an effort to accommodate learning styles by choosing suitable teaching styles, methodologies and course organization can result in improved learner satisfaction and attainment”. Moreover, it is proved by many studies that harmonization of teaching strategies with the students’ learning styles lead to significant academic achievement.
Willing [3] defines the learning style as “an individual learner’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of learning”. While, Nunan [4] defines it like this: “Learning style refers to any individual preferred ways of going about learning. It is generally considered that one’s learning style will result from personality variables, including psychological and cognitive make-up, socio-cultural background, and educational experience.” Learning styles have four related aspects: cognitive, affective, physiological, and behavioral, although most learning style research has focused on the cognitive, that is the individual psychological strategies of information processing.
Young learners differ in many aspects from the adult ones but as regarding their learning styles preferences they all may be grouped according to them. Differences in cognitive styles influence learners’ particular approach to learning. “Learners employ different learning strategies, i. e. specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more autonomous, and more transferable to new situations” [5]. The common learning styles identified and defined by Richards & Lockhart for each type of learners are:
- Concrete learners use active means ofprocess-ing information;
- Analytical learners prefer logical and systematic presentation of new material;
- Communicative learners prefer social approach;
- Authority-oriented learners prefer the teachers’ authority.
Generally, learners demonstrate different learning styles and strategies, justifiably so because some individuals learn more by memorizing, others by analogy, others by rules, systems and systematic cataloguing [6].
Methodology
The method used to gather information on the students’ learning styles was through an adapted version of Willing’s questionnaire titled “How do you learn best?” [3]. This particular questionnaire was chosen because the learner types identified by Willing and the learning methods mentioned in the questionnaire seem applicable and relevant to language learning contexts. The purpose of this study is to identify the general learning style preferences of students and illustrate how the findings can help to design the learning tasks of the course in order to make it more efficient and learner-centered.
After performing an extensive research in which students answered questionnaires about their preferences, Willing [3] found how those cognitive styles affect the way how language learners approach instruction. Concrete learners dislike routine. They
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Section 3. Applied and mathematical linguistics
like to work in pairs, and to learn by games, pictures, films and music. Analytical learners are “vulnerable to failure”. They like to study grammar and to find their own mistakes “developing principles on their own.” Communicative learners learn from discussion and group activity; by watching and listening. Authority-oriented learners are responsible and dependable. They are not comfortable with group work and discussions. They expect the teacher to explain everything, and then they take notes and keep it for further consultation.
The results of this study will help better understand sports students’ learning styles, which would contribute towards raising teachers’ awareness of such styles especially in the development of course materials, curriculum and teaching methods which are of great importance in the learning and teaching process. The vital importance of matching the learning styles of students in a class and the teaching style of the instructor would help improve students’ learning, attitudes, behavior, and motivation as such acknowledged by many scholars and studies [7; 8; 9].
Data analysis
The statements on the questionnaire aimed to measure the learning style preferences of the four learner types identified by Willing [3]. The questionnaire consists of 30 questions, translated into Albanian, and the students’ answers show how they learn English. The items of the questionnaire are mixed and not grouped according to the styles they aim to identify. 160 first-year students at Sports University of Tirana during the academic year 2014-2015 were asked to indicate their preferences on a 4 point scale. For each item of the questionnaire students were provided with four alternatives they could choose in order to indicate their preferences: no=1, a little=2, good=3, and best=4. The questionnaire was administered at the start of the English course and during classes under the supervision and support of the teachers. The data gathered by this 4-point likert scale questionnaire was processed by SPSS, and Cronbachs alpha for the overall inter-item reliability of the questionnaire was
0.907, which indicates a high level of internal consistency for our questionnaire.
The analysis of the findings pointed out that sports students at UST belong, as expected, to various learning styles. The results show that the major-
ity of my students are communicative learners with a mean score (m 3.21), secondly come authority-oriented learners with a mean score (m 3.15) and then in the third place are concrete learners (m 2.98) and fewer in number are analytical learners (m 2.96).
These findings were justifiable as it is well-known that every group of learners is composed of individuals who differ as regarding their motivation, interests, attitudes, learning strategies and learning styles. The aim was to identify any predominant learning style that later would lead to adaption of course materials, tasks and methodologies that would accommodate comply the prevailing learning style identified. Beside this, the results would help teachers to work on those aspects of the learning aspects where learners were unconfident and build up their strengths but in the meantime make use of strategies that would help them diminish and overcome their weaknesses in order to be more effective and independent learners. Discussion
Willing [3] through this questionnaire, identified four types of learners, namely; 1-concrete learners, 2-analytical learners, 3-communicative learners, and 3 — teacher-oriented learners.
Moreover, Nunan [4] defined in brief these four types of learners with reference to the kind of tasks they prefer:
Type 1: Concrete learners These learners tend to like games, pictures, films, video, using cassettes, talking in pairs and practicing English outside class.
Type 2: Analytical learners These learners like studying grammar, studying English books and reading newspapers, studying alone, finding their own mistakes and working on problems set by the teacher.
Type 3: Communicative learners These students like to learn by watching, listening to native speakers, talking to friends in English and watching television in English, using English out of class in shops, trains, etc., learning new words by hearing them, and learning by conversations.
Type 4: Teacher-oriented learners These learners prefer the teacher to explain everything, like to have their own textbook, to write everything in a notebook, to study grammar, learn by reading, and learn new words by seeing them.
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Harmonization of teaching strategies with students’ learning styles in the ESP classroom
Thus, when designing communicative tasks for the classroom, the course designer may be based on the principles underlining the above methods (such as learning through interactions and media aids) listed in Willing’s questionnaire and take into consideration inclusion of group discussions and teacher student conferences as students prefer to talk with classmates and their teachers. English films and video programs are also effective means to help students listen to foreigners speak English.
Appropriate tasks for the two dominant learning styles
Based on the results of the questionnaire the dominant learning style is the communicative learner followed by the authority-oriented learner. As these two types of learners prevail in the classroom, the teacher should keep in mind appropriate and efficient activities and tasks in order to facilitate learning for these students. However, the two other groups, even though they do not dominate over the two other should not be neglected. Below are listed some tasks for the two types of learners which resulted to be higher in number than the two others.
Tasks for communicative learners!
When designing communicative tasks for the his/her students, the teacher may use of the following methods:
- learning through interactions and media aids
- group discussions as students prefer to talk with classmates and their teachers.
- English films and video programs are also effective means to help students listen to foreigners speak English.
Tasks for Authority-oriented learners
Authority-oriented learners are field-dependant and passive. This learner type prefers structured and sequential progression. They do better in ‘traditional’ classrooms and look on teachers as authority figures.
- Exercises on grammatical structures are effective, always after prior explanation
- Encourage feedback and inclusion for every item/topic covered
- Assign homework related to topics explained during classes
- Assess every task and explain their mistakes and point out their strengths/achievements
Below are listed the statements which received the highest scores by the students. They indicate that students’ overall preferences should be satisfied by the activities designed by the teacher. The teacher should involve students more in conversations, group discussions and at the same time, explain everything clearly as a majority of them are ‘teacher-oriented’, i. e. expecting the teacher to make clear every new item or topic presented. Moreover, the statements which received the highest scores are as follow:
Highest scored statements are as following:
Stat. 30:I like to learn by speaking with foreigners when there is a chance. (m 3.41)
Stat. 8: I like the teacher to explain everything to us. (m 3.36)
Stat. 11:1 like the teacher to tell me all my mistakes. (m 3.35)
Stat. 19:1 like to learn many new words. (m 3.33) Stat. 7: I like to have my own textbook. (m 3.30) Stat. 4: In class, I like to learn by conversations. (3.30)
While the lowest scored statements are as following:
Stat. 2: In class, I like to listen to and use cassettes. (m 2.96)
Stat. 24: At home, I like to learn by reading English newspaper. (m 2.75)
Stat. 26: At home, I like to learn by using cassettes. (m 2.77)
Stat. 13: I like to study English by myself alone. (m 2.79)
Stat. 3: In class, I like to learn by game. (m 2.85) These findings correspond to the ones of another study conducted with the same students. They aim to improve their speaking and communication skills, enrich their vocabulary and on the other hand they are not motivated readers and don’t think they should improve listening or reading skills. As the ranking shows they do not prefer listening or reading. (Speaking (m 3.50); Reading (m 3.42); Listening (m 3.41); Writing (m 3.40))
Suggestions for teachers
Extensive research shows that students’ cognitive styles affect the way language learners approach instruction. Thus, teachers, while planning methodologies, materials and tasks, should consider all these aspects.
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Section 3. Applied and mathematical linguistics
But no classroom is ideal in the sense that it does not comprise students with the same learning style, thus the teacher should design activities for every cognitive and learning style. In order to avoid monotony in the classroom and foster motivation and effective learning, the language teacher should adjust the proportion and kind of the tasks according to the learning style preferences as identified through the questionnaire.
Brown [8] states that the teacher’s role is to stimulate and facilitate so that students step out of their comfort zone into a more challenging situation. The teacher can work to develop learners’ self-
awareness. There is a list of behaviors/strategies for successful learning which include lower inhibitions, self-confidence, motivation, clear goals, cooperative learning, tolerance, intuition, and error analysis suggested by Brown: “This way, students can become aware of their possible style tendencies, consider the relationship between such styles and success in their language-learning goals, and take positive steps to capitalize on their assets and to overcome any liabilities.” Teachers must also remember that students are different and will perceive suggestions and support in different ways and teachers have to be sensible to see their different styles.
References:
1. Oxford, R. (1993). Language learning strategies in a nutshell: Update and ESL suggestions. TESOL Journal, 2 (2).
2. Reid, J. (1987). The Learning Style Preferences of ESL Students. TESOL Quarterly
3. Willing, K. (1988). Learning Styles in Adult Migrant Education. Australia: NCRC Research Series.
4. Nunan, David. 1991. Language Teaching Methodology. New York: Prentice Hall, Ltd
5. Oxford, R., Ehrman, M and Lavine, R. (1991). Style Wars: Teacher-Student Style Conflicts in the Language Classroom. In Magnan, S (ed)., Challenges in the 1990’s for College Foreign Language Programs (pp. 1-25). Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
6. Smolinski F. Landmarks of American Language and Linguistics. Vol. 1. A Recourse Collection for the Overseas Teacher of English as a Foreign Language. Washington, D. C., 1993.
7. Schmeck, R. R. (Ed.) (1988). Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. New York: Plenum Press.
8. Kinsella, K. (1995). Understanding and empowering diverse learners in ESL classrooms. In J. M. Reid (ed.), Learning styles in the ESUEFL classroom. Boston: Heinle and Heinle,
9. Schmeck, R. R. (Ed.) (1988). Learning Strategies and Learning Styles. New York: Plenum Press.
10. Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by Principals: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (3rd ed). White Plains, NY: Pearson Longman.
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