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Section 2. Gender Education
Section 2. Gender Education
Melkumyan Anaid, Gubkin Russian State Oil & Gas University, PhD in Physics and Mathematics, the Department of Physics
E-mail: [email protected]
Gender approach to processes at higher technical education in Russia
Abstract: Higher technical education in Russia is considered from a gender point of view. Gender asymmetry in higher education is explored through the analysis of official statistics and study of training of petroleum engineers. The results of statistical processing and sociological survey and interviews of students of Gubkin Russian State Oil & Gas University are represented.
Keywords: Higher technical education, gender asymmetry, statistical data, survey opinion, engineering undergraduates, gender analysis, professional career, gender inequality, statistical processing.
Introduction
Decline in Russian higher engineering and technical education during twenty last years has been highlighted by many researchers [1-4]. Transition from a planned economy to a so-called free market economy has led to disastrous consequences for science and education [1, 125-126]. The share of students graduated from state universities by engineering specialties decreased from 42% in 1998 to 22% in 2008 (in private universities this share is about 1%). Total number of students for the same period increased in 2.6 times and the number of students graduated in economy, management and law increased in 6.3 times. According to the data of Association for Engineering Education in Russia [2, 19-20], obtained as a result of expert workshops in 2011-2012, the state of engineering education in Russia is in systemic crisis (17% of the experts), critical (36%), stagnant (30%). Only 17% of the experts considered the status of engineering education in Russia satisfactory. According to the data of Russian Statistical Yearbook 2014 [5] the number of engineering graduates decreased from 351.7 thousand (24% of all graduates) in 2010 to 281.8 thousand (22%) in 2013. Not only the number of engineering students is decreased but the quality of engineering education is reduced [3]. According to the employers’ opinions in 2013 about 40% gradu-
ates from technical universities have insufficient training and should be additionally trained to begin the work. The level of knowledge of students admitted in technical universities is much inferior to the corresponding level of the soviet period. Engineering education has lost its former popularity and quality in Russia. Problems of engineering education are of great concern not only in Russia but all over the world [4, 395-396]. The popularity of higher technical education among young people falls, the percentage of students of engineering specialties of the total number of students is decreasing. At the same time demand for efficient engineers is everywhere growing. For example, even in a highly developed country like Denmark in 2020 shortage of 1400 engineers is projected. In Sub-Saharan Africa shortage of engineers and technicians is 2.5 million. Worldwide shortage of engineers constitutes a threat to the development of society.
The risks related to this shortage require to draw more female students to higher technical education and to train more women-engineers. An engineer is a male-dominated profession, but not everywhere and always: in China 40% of engineers are women, in the former USSR women accounted for 58% of engineering workforce [6]. Engineering education lags severely behind the other sciences in terms of share of women in the total number of university
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Gender approach to processes at higher technical education in Russia
students. Under-representation of women in undergraduate engineering programs may be caused by gender inequality in students’ admission and retention. The specialized research highlights that in USA the dropout rates for girls and boys are approximately equal and gender disparities in engineering education are largely driven by inequality in women and men admission [7, 220-222]. In Russia as a whole the dropout rate is significantly lower for females than for males. It can be explained by the high degree of gender segregation by specialties and by the fact that girls in average have academic achievements better than boys [8, 66-67]. According to the data of the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics in USA in 2012 women accounted 56.5% of all university students, and only 18,6% of students of programs of higher engineering education [9, 173]. In Russia in 2013-2014 (fall semester) this gap was smaller: women accounted 54.0% of all university undergraduates, and 29.6% of undergraduates in higher technical and engineering education [10, 60-61]. Despite the fact that the overall employment status of women has increased all over the world and more and more women get higher education, women are still under-represented in the engineering professions. Obviously, the attraction of women to engineering careers is an important and challenging problem. Necessary steps should include: the early motivation of women, full support to those who have chosen the profession of engineering, a woman-centered model of teaching technical sciences, specially trained teachers [9, 175]. The change of gender stereotypes to attract women in higher technical education is possible with a competent professional orientation at all levels: from school to media. Given the fact that engineering professions are becoming less popular in Russia and world-wide, increasing the participation of girls in the competitions for admissions to technical universities allows to raise the quality of higher technical education and overcome the shortage of qualified engineering professionals in the fields of high-tech economy. Economic development will not be successful without women equally participating in all fields of economic activity.
Methods
Federal State Statistic Service (Rosstat) has been issuing Statistical Handbook “Women and
men in Russia” since 1997 year every two year. The Handbook has been prepared on the basis of information obtained by the State statistical bodies from organizations, the results of current surveys as well as by the data supplied by ministries and agencies of the Russian Federation. The Handbook contains data by sex groups on population, educational attainment, training of students ofhigher professional education institutions. Changes of the share ofwom-en at different levels of higher education and among undergraduates of various specialties from 1999 to 2014 have been explored by the author using the data of the Handbook.
A more detailed study of gender asymmetry in higher technical education was carried out by an example of training engineers of oil and gas industry in Gubkin Russian State Oil & Gas University — the principal university of petroleum engineering education in Russia. Annual admission to the university is about 1500 students, an average share of female engineering undergraduates is about 30%. There are University Preparatory Courses in Moscow as well as University Regional Preparatory Courses at oil and gas areas helping petroleum companies to prepare specialists for work in remote regions. About 30% of engineering undergraduates at Gubkin University are sponsored by petroleum companies. The paper presents the gender analysis results obtained by statistical data processing and sociological survey of undergraduates and students of Preparatory Courses of Gubkin State University. The Data Base on 1240 students of engineering faculties has been created. The Data Base contains the information about Gender (Female or Male); Type of Admission (Budget — sponsored by State, Target — sponsored by petroleum company, Contract — student pays tuition); Region of student’s graduation from high school (Central District, South District, Volga Region, Ural, Siberia, Far East, North Caucasus); Faculty (Computer Science, Geology & Geophysics, Mechanical Engineering, Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, Pipeline Systems, Chemical & Environmental Engineering) and Academic Success (scores for two semesters of study physics). The Data had been proceeding and histograms and graphs of distributions were obtained. Analysis of the results reveals a significant gender asymmetry for all parameters.
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Section 2. Gender Education
The survey opinion has been conducted in two independent groups: first-year students of Mechanical Engineering Faculty (60 respondents) and students of the University Preparatory Courses in Moscow and Volga Region (60 respondents). A majority of respondents were male what reflected the situation in engineering education in general and at Gubkin State University in particular. The respondents answered questions about prestigious of profession of petroleum engineer, choice of the specialty, confidence in getting job after graduation the university and gender inequality in the profession of an engineer. The survey revealed a significant difference between opinions of female and male respondents and between opinions of two groups. Five female undergraduates studying on “male” specialty (one girl in a group of 25-30 students) were interviewed. They were questioned about their choice of the specialty, expectations of future professional career, understanding the difficulties in professional development caused by family life and children, awareness of gender inequality still existing in engineering profession. The results of the interviews were similar despite the fact that the girls selected different faculties, came from different regions and from families with different traditions and education.
Results
Analysis of data of the Statistical Handbook from 1999 to 2014 reveals the gender asymmetry: both vertical (by level of education) and horizontal (by specialty). Higher education in Russia has a multilevel structure of training of highly qualified professionals. After graduation from the university student defends a diploma and obtains qualification “specialist” (now along with this system of higher education the «bachelor — magister» educational process is introduced). The second level ofhigher education is three years ofpostgraduate study: student defends a dissertation and gets a degree of Candidate of Sciences (analog of PhD). The highest qualification — degree of Doctor of Sciences — could be obtained after three years training in Doctorate and defending doctoral thesis or after publishing of results of important scientific researches.
The share of women in Russia’s population has grown from 53% in 1999 to 54% in 2014. The share of female undergraduates from the total number of university students has decreased from 57% to 54% for the same time. The share of women in postgraduate and doctorate is less than 50% on the whole and less than 30% for engineering specialties but it is continually increasing (fig.1).
Fig.1. Share (%) of female students by level of education The increase is particularly high for women studying in doctorate: from 35% to 48% on the whole and from 17% to 28% for technical specialties (tab.1).
Tab.1 - Share (%) of female students by level of education
1999-2000 2013-2014
1 2 3
Postgraduates 43% 47%
Doctoral students 35% 48%
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Gender approach to processes at higher technical education in Russia
1 2 3
Postgraduates in engineering 21% 26%
Doctoral students in engineering 17% 28%
With regard to the horizontal gender asymmetry the share of female undergraduates is more than 50% due non-technical specialties (fig.2). According to the data of Statistical Handbook female university students prefer pedagogical (share of women from 82% to 76%), economic (from 71% to 66%), medical and humanitarian (about 70%) education. At the same time the share of women is less than 30% for
most of technical specialties and this share has been continuously decreasing (fig.3). For fifteen years the share of female undergraduates on most technical specialties has decreased greater than the share of female undergraduates in general. For example, this decrease from 2000 to 2014 is: from 20% to 6% in marine engineering, from 25% to 17% in machine building (tab. 2).
Tab. 2. - Share (%) of female students in technical specialties
SPECIALTY 1999-2000 2013-2014
1 2 3
geology and exploration 40 16
development of mineral resources 19
Metallurgy 35 17
machine building and metal working 25
energetics, power engineering 19 14
computer science and engineering 27 24
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Section 2. Gender Education
1 2 3
electronic equipment, radio and communication 22 18
aviation, rocket and space technology 18 14
marine engineering 20 6
chemical and biotechnology 57 51
Results of statistical processing of data of Gubkin types of admission, regions, faculties and academic
Russian State University’s undergraduates by gender, success reveal a traditional gender inequality.
■ female ■ male
G8
budget target contract
Fig.4. Distribution (%) of female and male undergraduates by type of admission
There are three types of admission to the university: Budget (sponsored by State), Target (sponsored by petroleum company), Contract (student pays tuition). Statistical analysis of data of first-year students on engineering faculties by types of admission reveals a significant gender asymmetry (fig.4). Percent of female students as proportion of all (100%) types: 68% for Budget, 21% for Target, 11% for Contract. Percent of male students: 50%, 27%, 23% accordingly. Budget admission requires very high scores of Unified State Exam (USE). Target admission depends on petroleum companies and does not require high USE scores. Students with lower USE scores are usually enrolled under Contract. Statistical analysis shows that girls have in average better USE scores but petroleum companies prefer boys as target students.
Statistical analysis of data by gender and regions has been used to find a share (in%) of female and male students from various regions of Russia. Traditional gender inequality has been obtained for all regions except Siberia where female share is 58%, male share — 42% (fig.5). All other regions (except North Caucasus) have a share of female undergraduates from 18% to 33%.
Highlighting gender discrimination result has been obtained for North Caucasus: share of female students is 7%. Share of girls in the University Preparatory Courses varies from 25% to 40% for Moscow, Volga Region and Siberia. On the North Caucasus for several years there was not any girl enrolled in the courses! Local traditions create difficulties for girls on their path to higher education, especially engineering.
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Gender approach to processes at higher technical education in Russia
Fig.5. Share (%) of female and male undergraduates by region
Analysis of share of female and male undergraduates by faculties reveals a considerable gender asymmetry on all engineering faculties except Chemical & Environmental Engineering where the female and male share is equal (fig.6). The female share is less than male on other faculties. It is especially small on Pipelines Systems (19%) and Petroleum Reservoir Engineering (14%). Nevertheless
there are several specialties where the majority of undergraduates are females: Industrial Ecology, Industrial Safety and Environmental Protection, Certification and Quality Control of Oil and Gas Equipment etc. There are a lot of specialties where the share of female undergraduates is less than 5%: Machinery and Equipment of Oil and Gas, Drilling of Oil and Gas Wells etc.
Fig.6. Share (%) of female and male undergraduates by faculty
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Section 2. Gender Education
Statistical analysis of engineering undergraduates on two semesters of studying physics reveals a stable gender asymmetry in academic achievement (fig.7). Share of female and male students with test scores A&B is equal on Geology & Geophysics and Pipeline Systems. On other four engineering faculties in average 68% of female students and 42% of male students in Fall semester and 55% of female students and 38% of male students in Spring semester had got scores
on the physics A & B. Trending dynamic of academic progress gives evaluation of motivation and drive for professional success. It reveals that first-year female students often approach to the process of training more responsibly than their male counterparts. First-year female students have in average better scores on general subjects even such difficult as physics because they are more motivated about learning and they have better high school knowledge.
Fig. 7 Share (%) of female and male students with scores on the physics A&B
A sociological survey conducted between undergraduates and between students of the preparatory courses reveals the significant difference between answers of female and male respondents and between answers of two groups. All respondents answered five questions. 100% of respondents answer “Yes” the questions “Do you consider that a petroleum engineer is a prestigious profession?” and “Do you consider your profession as a basis of future material welfare?” Two questions have revealed a significant difference between opinions of female and male respondents but no differences between opinions of surveyed groups (undergraduates and students of preparatory courses). 75% of girls and 95% of boys answered “Yes” the question “Are you sure you will get a job on the specialty after graduation the university?” The vast majority of respondents hope to get a job in oil and gas industry after graduation al-
though boys are more confident in their future than girls are. 25% of girls and 60% of boys answered “Yes” the question “Do you have friends or relatives working in oil and gas industry?” The answers indicate that professional orientation on petroleum engineer is largely determined from family but girls are more independent in choice of profession. Only one question revealed a considerable difference in opinions of surveyed groups: ”For whom is harder to get a job in the specialty after graduation the university?” It was a question with three choices of answer: a) woman, b) man, c) no difference. 55% females and 25% males on Preparatory Courses and 95% females and 50% males among undergraduates selected the answer “woman”. The rest of respondents selected the answer “no difference” and nobody — the answer “man”. The survey results show that girls are more aware of gender inequality in getting job
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Gender approach to processes at higher technical education in Russia
and career promotion but this realization is growing viewed about selecting of specialty and understand-
with time for all respondents. ing of barriers in professional career. The results are
Five female students studying on “male” special- represented in tab.3. ty (one girl in a group of25-30 students) were interTab. 3. - Barriers to career women
Choice of profession Conscious independent choice
Inclination to exact sciences (math, physics, chemistry)
Intention to work in the chosen specialty
Interest in a professional career
Professional career Intention to get an experience in production (oil field, refinery)
Aspiration to higher career levels
Confidence in an ability to achieve higher career levels
Professional status not less than that of husband
Family issues Contribution to the family budget not less than that of husband
Getting married and having children is not hurt professional career
Gender inequality Equal starting positions after graduation don’t provide equal career progress for female and male engineers.
The girls told about the conscious independent of students of Gubkin Russian State Oil & Gas
choice of their specialty, the inclination to exact sciences, the intention to work in the chosen specialty and about their interest in professional career. They are planning after graduation from the university to work (at least for a while) not in an office or a research institute, but in production: oil fields, refinery etc. because it is necessary for experience and successful career. The girls are confident that their career will not depend on family and children because family life could be organized reasonably in modern society. They are sure that their professional status and contribution to the family budget will be not less to the husband’s. At the same time the girls understand that equality ofstarting positions don’t provide equal career progress for them and their male counterparts. The results of interviews show that girls are independent and ambitious in their choice of profession. They are ready to make professional career slowly but they are confident in achieve the highest career levels.
Conclusions
The results of an analysis of official statistics, data processing, sociological survey and interviews
References:
University allow to consider processes in higher technical education in Russia from a gender point of view. Students are bearers of gender consciousness caused by gender knowledge, gender attitude and gender behavior in modern society. Higher technical education reflects gender stratification of the society and culture as a whole. Changing gender stereotypes and socioeconomic conditions provide a steady increase in the share of women on the upper levels of higher education in Russia. Gender discrimination still existing in engineering specialties does technical education less attractive for women. Modern women aspire to get higher education and make the successful professional career but they choose easier paths and the share of female students in engineering specialties is continually decrease. Greater participation of women in engineering specialties is possible with the involvement of girls in admission to technical universities with proper career guidance on all levels — from school to media.
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Section 2. Gender Education
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