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Acta Linguistica Petropolitana. 2022. Vol. 18.1. P. 165-186 DOI 10.30842/alp23065737181165186
Full and calm:
Notes on Greek and Latin tranquillus
Daniel Kolligan
Julius-Maximilians-Universitat Wurzburg (Wurzburg, Germany); daniel.koelligan@uni-wuerzburg.de
Abstract. The paper is dedicated to the etymologies of Greek and Latin adjectives with the meaning 'calm', rjOT>%o<; and tranquillus. Greek adj. fjOT>%o<; 'calm, quiet, peaceful' may be a derivative with the suffix -%o- of a deverbal abstract noun *hasu-< *seh2tu- 'satisfaction'.
The suffix -%o-, which originally had a diminutive meaning, could express a positive connotation for this adjective. This allows regarding the Homeric use of fjOT>%o<; in the meaning of 'peaceful' as secondary. The comparison to other uses of this adjective in the ancient Greek literature allows to trace how the semantics of the adjective developed from the original meaning 'satiated, satisfied' to 'contented, calm, gentle, quiet', which became the main one in Classical Greek. A similar development of semantics is reflected in the notion of the god of war Ares as 'insatiable' (Il. 5, 388 'Apn^ axo^ noXs^oio) and has a parallel in Lat. satur (cf. satur fu, fere Mars in the Latin Carmen Arvale).
Lat. adj. tranquillus, the usage of which is comparable to that of jCTDxo^, can be derived from *kuihilo- (also found in Germanic languages, cf. *h"Tla- 'rest; interval of time'). The reconstructed adjective *quilos was probably regularly used in the construction 'sail (across) the calm sea', (trans) *quillum (mare). After the loss of the simplex *quillo-, the syntagm was univerbated into tranquillum which was interpretable as an adverb 'calm(ly)': tranquillum 'across the calm sea' and tranquillo 'in a calm sea'. The reinterpretation of these forms as adverbs, especially the use of tranquil-lum in the function of accusativus adverbialis, gave rise to the corresponding adjective tranquillus.
Keywords: etymology, Greek, Latin, metaphor, diminutive, nautical terminology.
Acknowledgment. I thank R. Ginevra (Milan), E. Hill (Cologne) and J.-N. Linnemeier (Wurzburg) for helpful remarks during the preparation of this paper.
© Daniel Kolligan, 2022
Полнота и спокойствие: заметки о греческом rçou/oç и латинском tranquillus
Д. Кёллиган
Вюрцбургский университет (Вюрцбург, Германия); daniel.koelligan@uni-wuerzburg.de
Аннотация. В статье разбираются этимологии греческого и латинского прилагательных со значением 'спокойный', fjOT>%oç и tranquillus. Показывается, что греческое прилагательное fjOT>%oç 'спокойный, тихий, мирный' могло быть образовано при помощи суффикса -%о- от абстрактного отглагольного существительного *hasu- < *seh2tu- 'удовлетворение': суффикс -%о-, исходно обладавший диминутивным значением, в контексте данного прилагательного указывал на положительную оценку со стороны говорящего. Это позволяет установить, что уже гомеровское использование fjau%oç в значении 'мирный, нетронутый' является производным, а сопоставление с другими использованиями данного прилагательного в архаической греческой литературе позволяет проследить, как семантика прилагательного развивалась от исходного значения 'насытившийся, довольный' к основному для классического греческого значению 'удовлетворенный, спокойный, тихий'. Подобное развитие семантики находит отражение в представлении о боге войны Аресе как 'ненасытном' (II. 5, 388 'Apr|ç àxoç noXé^oio) и имеет параллель в латинском satur (ср. satur fu, fere Mars в клятве коллегии арвальских братьев, fratres arvales).
Для латинского прилагательного tranquillus, сопоставимого по своему употреблению с jCTU%oç, постулируется основа *kwih¡lo- (также нашедшая отражение в германских языках, ср. *h"ïla- 'отдых; промежуток времени'). Восстанавливаемое прилагательное *quïlos, вероятно, регулярно употреблялось в конструкции '[плыть] по (букв. через) спокойному морю', (trans) *quillum (mare). После исчезновения простого прилагательного *quillo- данная синтагма подверглась универбации, дав существительное tranquillum, употреблявшееся преимущественно в формах tranquillum 'о спокойном море' и tranquillo 'в спокойном море'. Реинтерпретация этих форм в качестве наречий, особенно tranquillum в качестве accusativus adverbialis, сделало возможным образование прилагательного tranquillus.
Ключевые слова: этимология, древнегреческий язык, латинский язык, метафора, диминутив, терминология мореплавания.
1. Saturated peace: Greek ^ouxo?
1.1. The adjective jaoxo? is first attested in Hes. Th. 762f. (ex. (1)), its derivative ^ouxio^ in II. 21, 598 ('in peace, unharmed', cf. ex. (11)), aou-occurs in Pi. O. 2, 32 (aouxi^ov a^epav 'a peaceful, quiet day'), 1 ^ouxia 'calmness, peace (fulness)' from Od. 18, 22 onward. 2 "Houxo? usually takes animate beings as subjects, e.g.
(1) xrov exepo^ ^ev yflv xe Kai eupea vroxa QaXaoon? / favxoq avoxpe^exai Kai ^eilixo? avQpronmm...
'One of them [sc. Sleep] passes gently over the earth and the broad back of the sea and is soothing for human beings' (Hes. Th. 762f.). 3
The adjective denotes a state controllable by the subject, cf. the imperative Hdt. 7, 13 jouxoi eoxe 'Be at peace!', also in cases where it is used metonymically as an attribute of a body part, e.g. E. Or. 136 ^auxra noSi xrapeiv 'walk with a quiet foot' = 'walk quietly'. Its semantic source domain is therefore likely to be related to possible states of animate beings. One such domain could be that of the root PIE *seh2- 'to satisfy, have one's fill' [LIV2: 520f.], attested in Greek itself in forms such as the root aorist a^evai 'to satiate oneself', e.g. Il. 19, 307 oixoio ... noxflxo^ aoaoQai ^iXov "xop 'to sate [my] heart with food and drink', in the adjective aaxo^ 'insatiate' (in Homer usually Ares 'insatiate for war', cf. 1.2 with ex. (19)), the adverb aS^v 'to one's fill', etc. 4 Beside the
1 On the original status of /a/ cf. [Forssman 1966: 48-55]: aauxi^o^ is attested only in Pindar and may be his own creation based on the model of Homeric voaxi^ov, aiai^ov "n^ap, implying original /a/. Forms with r|- in Pindar refer to political peace (e.g. O. 4, 16 npo^ 'HOT>%iav ^iXonoXiv), and may have been taken over from Ionic, while those with a- describe the sphere of private life and animal husbandry.
2 Cf. [LfgrE 2: 942].
3 Unless indicated otherwise, translations are taken from the Loeb series (Harvard University Press).
4 Further continuants of this root outside Greek are Skt. asinvant- 'insatiable' presupposing a nasal present, Toch. B soy- 'to become sated', sinask- 'to sate', and
abstract noun in *-ti- found in Lat. satis 'enough', 5 Lith. sotis 'saturation, repletion' and indirectly in Olr. sa(i)th (f.) 'sufficiency, fill (of food)' (**satia), one may also suppose a noun in *-tu-, cf. similar pairs like Ved. i-ti- 'walk(ing)': Lat. i-tus, Ved. ga-ti- 'id.', Gk. pd-oi^ : Ved. gan-tu-, Lat. °ventus, -us, etc., i.e. *seh2-tu- > Gk. aou- /hasu-/ 'satisfaction, saturation' from which aou-xo- 'satisfied ^ quiet, calm' may be derived. 6 This tu-noun is attested indirectly in the Latin adjective satur (o/a) 'well-fed' (Pl.+), from which saturitas 'satiety', saturare 'to fill, satisfy', and satullus (cf. ex. (3)) derive and which may be transposed as *satu-ro-, i.e. a ro-adjective built to the tu-stem *sh2-tu-. 7 In Greek, simple -tu- is
probably Hitt. sah-' 'to stuff, fill', cf. [Kloekhorst 2008: 690-691], assuming a semantic shift from 'fill' > 'sate' after Anatolian split off (cf. NE I'm full.) A notable nominal form beside the stems in -ti- and -tu- discussed supra is the verbal adj. *sh2to-e.g. in Gmc. *sap- (Goth. saps, cf. [Kroonen 2013: 419]). Gk. aaxo^ may continue *n-sh2-eto- (rather than *n-sh2-to-), cf. [Vine 1998: 25-26]. On aS^v, áSpó^, áSivó^ 'thick, abundant < to one's fill, to satiety' and OIr. saithe (m.) 'swarm of bees; host, throng' < *sh2tio- cf. [Watkins 1994]; Arm. hac° in hacoy 'satisfactory, pleasant, agreeable' (NBHL, 1: 'gratus, placitus') could be related to the Greek forms in -S-, e.g. *s(e)h2dio-.
5 Alternatively interpreted as a comparative *sat-'s 'more satisfied', which is not compelling. The variant sat has mostly been interpreted as deriving from satis (e.g. via *satis est> *satis't) or *sate (cf. [de Vaan 2008: 540]). In the light of mox 'soon' beside Ved. maksu (but cf. also OIr. mó < *moks), one might suppose a development *sh2tuhi (with adverbial instrumental) > *satu (with loss of laryngeal in pausa, e.g. in predicative use 'It's enough.', *satu [sc. est]) > sat. If satur derived from this phonologically reduced instrumental, it would be structurally identical to the -turus-type (cf. fn. 7). The difference to rite 'correctly', if from *rituhi as per Weiss, could be the length of the root vowel, cf. also tute 'you', if from *tu-tu (and not with -te as in 's-te 'this one'), and nonne if related to Ved. na-nú (cf. [Weiss 2020: 159]).
6 For the development of -tu- ^ -su- cf. 'half' (Dor. -tu-), cf. [Schwyzer 1939: 272], be this a phonological or an analogical change from oblique cases like gen. *semituos > *j^iaao<; > *j^iao<;, cf. [Benveniste 1935: 57]; for the simplification of word-internal -aa- cf. *totio- > Tóaao^ > Tóao^.
7 This is different from the type maturus < *matu 'with ripening' + -ro-, which is probably modelled on sero- 'late' and duro- 'long lasting > hard', cf. recently Fortson
no longer productive and has been replaced by -tu- < *-tu-h2-, 8 cf. Hom. yparcxu^ [-U-] (ypa^ra) 'scratching', Ppraxu^ [-U-] 'eating' (aor. ePpra), etc. The hypothesized stem *seh2tu- would thus be one of the few remnants of PIE *-tu- in Greek. 9 In contrast to this, secondary formations in -(a/i) XO- are attested to various bases, speaking for a certain productivity of the suffix, whatever its origin may be, e.g. oxo^a 'mouth': oxo^axo? 'throat, gullet', oxovo^, oxovax^ beside oxevaxra 'groan', and, semanti-cally close to jouxo^, ^eilia 'soothing things, (means of) propitiation': ^eilixo? 'soothed, gentle, soft'.10 This makes a derivation *hasu—> *ha-sukho- at least possible and semantically not unlikely, note the cooccurrence of ^eilixo? and jouxo^ in ex. (1). If one takes the diminutive function visible e.g. in Theoc. 4, 55 oooixov 'how small' 11 from oooo^ 'how much' to underly jouxo^, too, it is not to be understood as indicating a reduced degree of the property, i.e. 'a bit (but not really) calm', just as e.g. Lith. sauleli does not mean 'small sun' (as opposed to another), but indicates the positive evaluation of the referent by the speaker (as long as the form is not lexicalized as e.g. in Ru. соnнце), i.e. 'the dear (vel sim.) sun', cf. e.g.
[2007] who points out (p. 86-87) that the addition of -ro- to u-stems as e.g. in Gk. Xi-yupôç beside Aryûç 'clear, shrill' is not a productive process in Latin, the only sure case for this combination being precisely satur. This speaks for a certain antiquity of the underlying -tu- stem. Further evidence for this noun elsewhere is weak: Mühlenbach, Endzelïns [1923, 3: 809] report Latv. satus 'blessing, thriving, nourishing, moderation (in eating)' as a variant of the a-stem säts (= Lith. sotus), from which it may have arisen secondarily, e.g. in ambiguous contexts such as est ar satu 'eat with moderation'; if OPr. satuinei 'you sate (du sättigest)' belongs to Lith. sotinti, Latv. sätinät 'to sate', it might be a misprint for *satinnei (E. Hill p. c.); cf. also [Smoczynski 2005: 316-317], [Hock 2020, s. v. sotus/sotùs].
8 Cf. [Fortson 2007: 86].
9 Another case may be ïtuç [f.] 'felloe, rim of a shield' ~ Lat. uiere 'to bind, twist', etc., cf. [Beekes 2010: 605]; see also [Chantraine 1933: 290-292; Risch 1974: 40-41].
10 Cf. [Chantraine 1933: 402-404; Risch 1974: 175-176].
11 oaai%ov sail to xü^a 'how small is the wound / such a little wound'.
(2) Djauxmas dufchu mufu... Sjib kaipfkaifti faulele...
'unsers hertzen wonne... leuchtet als die sonne...' (MzGj 1988). 12
Apparently, adjectives formed with diminutive suffixes may at the same time describe a property of the referent and refer to its positive or negative evaluation by the speaker, 13 e.g. Lat. satullus does not mean 'slightly filled, filled just a bit'; it may rather be significant that it refers to lambs:
(3) Hoc item faciunt mane, antequam matres in pabulum exeant, ut agni satullifiant lacte...
'The same thing takes place in the morning, before the dams go out to pasture, so that the lambs may be filled with milk.' (Var. R. 2, 16).
Such a "displaced" diminutive, in which the diminutive morphology appears not on the referring noun but on the accompanying adjective, is probably also v^niaxo? built on v^rcio^ 'child; childish': 14 in Homer it is always used in evaluating contexts, i.e. '(damn) stupid child; poor little child', etc., either in direct speech, e.g. when Nestor upbraids the Achaeans ('you silly boys!') and when Andromache pleads with Hector ('this poor little child'), or when the narrator himself evaluates an event (ex. (6)):
(4) ra nonoi ^ naioiv eoiKoxe^ ayopdaoQe vqmaxoiq oi^ ou Ti ^eXei rcoXe^ia epya.
'Well, now! You are holding assembly like silly boys that care not for deeds of war.' (II. 2, 337).
12 Taken from [Hock 2020: 1026]; cf. also [Kurschat, Wissmann 1968, 3: 2135, s. v. saulele 'die liebe Sonne'], [Niedermann, Senn, Brender 1957: 612]: (proverb) rasi jspfs saulüte ir} musq langutj 'Perhaps the sun of happiness will smile on us too'. ('Vielleicht wird auch uns noch die Sonne des Glücks ins Fensterchen lächeln.')
13 Cf. [Amaral 2018: 330] on the similar use of nouns, e.g. Port. Vai um cafezinho? 'Would you like a coffee^.]?' as a polite question, not as an invitation for a small coffee; in German Wie wär's mit einem Bierchen? 'How about having a beer^.]?' the diminutive seems to have an analogous function.
14 Pace Chantraine [1933: 403] who glosses vqrcia%o<; as 'tout petit enfant', i.e. as a diminutive proper.
(5) Sai^ovie ^Qioei oe xo oov ^evo^, ouS' eleaipei,^ rcaiSa xe vqmaxov Kai e^' a^opov, ^ xaxa x^pn oeu eoo^ai
'Ah, my husband, this might of yours will be your doom, and you have no pity for your infant child or for unfortunate me, who soon will be your widow.' (Il. 6, 407).
(6) auxiKa Se o^Keooiv eoixoxe^ e^exeovxo eivoSioi^, ou^ rcaiSe^ epiS^aivraoiv eQovxe^ — aiei Kepxo^eovxe^ oSra en oiKi' exovxa^ vqniaxov ^uvov Se KaKov rcoleeooi xiQeioi.
'At once they poured out like wasps of the wayside that boys are in the habit of stirring to anger, constantly tormenting them in their nests beside the way, foolish as they are; and a common evil they make for many.' (Il. 16, 259).
In contrast to this, v^rcio^ is both used in evaluative (ex. (7)) and neutral contexts (ex. (8)), e.g.
(7) yap o y' aip^oeiv nprn^ou rcoliv ^axi Keivra vtymoq, ouSe xa a pa Zeu^ ^f|Sexo epYa
'or he really believed that he should take the city of Priam on that very day —fool that he was! — and he did not know what deeds Zeus was planning.' (Il. 2, 37).
(8) ^axi xra oxe o' eK O0in? AYa^e^vovi rce^rce vtfmov, ou nra eiSo0' o^ouou rcole^oio,
'When he sent you out from Phthia to Agamemnon, a mere child, knowing nothing as yet of evil war.' (Il. 9, 439).
Since beside jouxo? there is no other adjectival formation based on *seh2- without the suffix -xo-, a similar contrastive analysis is impossible. However, the structurally parallel formation Lat. satullus seen above (ex. (3)) may be taken to show that a diminutive suffix in the function described above fits to an adjective meaning 'saturated, at peace'.
Further semantic comparanda within Greek are (i) eK|lo^ (Dor./Aeol. -alo^, Pi., Alc.) 'at rest, at one's ease' from PIE *uek- 'wish' (cf. ¿Krav
'voluntarily, readily'), glossed in Hesychius as yeKalovnouxov, which shows a number of usages overlapping with those of ^ouxo^, cf. 15
(a) "of persons feasting and enjoying themselves" ([LSJ, s. v. ^ou-xo^]; on ^ouxo? cf. 1.2 exx. (16-17)):
(9) alia '¿Knkoq
mve te, epi5aive ^et' av5paoi KoupoTepoioiv.
'No, then, be still, and drink your wine, and do not strive with men
younger than you.' (Od. 21, 309).
(b) 'sit quietly':
(10) Od. 17, 478 eo0i sK^loq; Od. 21, 259 sk^Ioi KdT0£Te; S. Aj. 325 fauxog 0aK£i.
(c) 'go away / be sent away in peace':
(11) '¿Knkoq eppeTffl 'Let him go to his ruin at his ease'. (Il. 9, 376); qovxiov 5' apa ^iv rcole^ou eKne^ne (Apollo saved Agenor:) 'He sent him away from the war to return in peace.' (Il. 21, 598).
15 Cf. also with the same suffix á^aXói; 'tender' (Il. 22, 310 apv' á^aX-qv, Od. 20, 14 á^aXflai nspi aKuXmcsaai) and áKaXá 'gentle/-ly' (Hes. fr. 218 áKaXa npopérov, of a river). ATaXó^ 'tender, delicate' (áTáXXro 'skip, gambol; rear, foster', ámáXXro 'rear' etc.) has been explained as extracted from áTaXa ^povéovTs^ < áTa-Xá^prov 'fearful' < TaXá^prov 'courageous' (cf. [Leumann 1950: 139ff.]), or as related to otTTa 'dad' [Benveniste 1969, 2: 85ff.]. Alternatively, one might consider a derivation from PIE *telH- 'be(come) silent' (OIr. -tuili 'sleeps', OCS u-toljg, -toliti 'to calm, soothe', Lith. tilti, tyla 'become silent', tyleti, tylia 'be silent', [LIV2: 621] quasi *sm-tlH-ó- > *hatalo- (> *hatalie/o-, etc.) with intensifying a- as in ápio^ 'rich', asSvov- noXú^spvov (Hsch. a 1239) 'with much dowry', etc.; WGmc. *stellja-'silent' (Germ. still 'silent', stillen 'to breast-feed', etc.), ON stilla 'to silence' etc. might belong to this group, too, showing either inherited s-mobile (PIE *[s]telH-) or, if one reconstructs *h2telH- (> Gk. áT-), a behaviour comparable to that of Gmc.
*smerta- (OE smeortan 'to cause pain', etc.) beside Gk. á^épSro 'to deprive of' (inner-Germanic s-mobile or PIE *sHC- > *sC-, if Gk. a^spSaXéo^, a^spSvó^ 'terrible, frightening' are related); for the meaning cf. also Lat. infans 'not speaking > child(ish)' and the general semantic connection between 'gentle, soft' and 'quiet, calm' exposed supra.
(ii) The adjective euK|Xo? 'at one's ease, untroubled' 16 is either a remodelling of eK|lo^ or built to PIE *hieuk- 'get/be used to' (Arm. owsanim 'to learn', Ved. uc-ya- 'be accustomed', OCS ucg, uciti 'to teach', etc., [LIV2: 244]); it overlaps with ^ouxo? in the use with 'sleep':
(12) euSov S' evKtfAoi : Anacr. iamb. 6 fav%oq KaQeuSei (cf. "Ynvo? ^ou-xo? in ex. (1)) (Od. 14, 479).
(iii) euKolo? shows a similar polysemy, viz. a general meaning 'good-natured, peaceful' (ex. (13)), 'easily satiated' in the context of food (ex. 14), and 'calm(ly)' (ex. (15)): 17
(13) o S' evKoXog ^ev ev0aS', evKoXog S' ¿Kei.
'Sophocles was peaceable here and will be peaceable there.' (Ar. Ra. 82).
16 The hapax StiaK-q^oç (A. Eu. 825) was most probably formed by Aeschylus after the Homeric model of swcr^oç, cf. [Sideras 1971: 160].
17 EûkoXoç is likely to have been formed after SûaKoXoç which may go back to *Sua-aKoXo- related to PIE *skelhi- 'to dry out' (Gk. aKsXXo^ai, aK^npôç, aKsXsxôç etc., cf. also [Vine 1998: 60]), i.e. 'badly > completely dried out, hard, difficult', cf. Ar. Pax 349 KOÙKéx'âv ^'sûpoiç SiKaarqv Spi^ùv oùSs SvokoXov/ oùSs xoùç xpônouç ys S-qnou oKX^pdv rôansp Kai npô xoù 'And you'll no longer find me a severe and colicky* / juror, nor such a hard case as I guess I was before.' (*Henderson's translation [Loeb] follows the folk-etymology current already in antiquity, cf. Ath. 6, 262a, deriving SûokoXoç from KôXov 'intestine'), cf. Gmc. *halla-/*skalla- (*[s]kolhio- or °-no- with loss of -hi- in *skolhino- ["Saussure effect"] or *skolnhio- based on the nasal present, cf. Gk. *sk[e]lnhie/o- (aKsXXo^ai with full grade from the aorist), followed by assimilation -ln- > -ll-, cf. Gmc. *fulla-< *plHno- 'full') in ON hallœri 'dry / bad year / harvest', MHG hel (-ll-) 'weak' and Germ. schal 'stale, insipid', MLG schal 'id.; dry', Swed. skall 'meagre, thin', ME shalowe 'shallow, dull' < *skol[hi]uo-, and Latv. kàlss 'meagre, slim, bony', cf. [Heidermanns 1993: 275]. For the intensifying use of Sua- cf. Suaôqç 'blowing badly/violently, stormy'. A similar simplification of geminate -s- is usually assumed for Sûaxnvoç 'unhappy, wretched' < *dus-steh2- (cf. Ved. sthana n. 'stand, position', etc.), cf. also (A.+) Sûaxo^oç 'hard-mouthed', Sûaxovoç 'grievous' (axsvro) vs. Suaasp-qç 'impious'. It seems less likely that SûaKoXoç continues the variant without initial /s/ (*kelhi-).
(14) ^v 5e nepi Ta^ Tpo^ou^ eni^eleia ti^ ^£Ta Texvn? - • en 5e evKoka Tai^ 5iavtai^ Kai aoiKxa.
'Their nurses, too, exercised great care and skill; ... (they taught the infants) to be contented and happy, not dainty about their food.' (Plu. Lyc. 16).
(15) Kai a^' eircrov Tama ercioxo^evo^ Kai ^ala euxepra? Kai evKokmq e^erciev... (Pl. Phd. 117c).
'And on saying this he put the cup to his lips and unflinching and calmly he drank it down.'
1.2. Under the hypothesis that ^ou- belongs to PIE *seh2-, the meaning 'in peace, unharmed' found in the Homeric epics is not likely to be the original meaning, but one that developed out of the meaning 'having one's fill, being saturated, satisfied'. Some of the adjective's early attestations in Hesiod and Pindar may be closer to this putative original meaning, cf. -nouxio? and ^ouxia connected with eating and drinking in Pindar:
(16) tfauyja 5e ^ilei / ^ev ou^rcooiov
'Peace loves the symposium.' (Pi. N. 9, 48).
(17) KepaiZev aypiou^
^ nollav te Kai qaoyiov Pouoiv eiptfvav napexoioa rcaTproai^... '(She would) slay the wild beasts, and truly she provided much peaceful security for her father's cattle.' (Pi. P 9, 22). 18
A bridging context in which the meaning 'saturated, satisfied' may have developed into 'peaceful, calm, quiet' could be the following:
(18) ... eo0la 5e rcavra
Toioiv e^v Kapnov 5' e^epe Zei5ropo^ apoupa auTo^arn nollov te Kai a^0ovov oi 5' e0elnMoi fooyoi epy' eve^ovro ouv eo0loioiv noleeooiv.
18 Cf. [Forssman 1966: 53]: the picture evokes the idea of peacefully grazing cattle ("erweckt die Vorstellung friedlich weidender Rinder").
a^veioi ^^loioi, ^iloi ^aKapeooi Qeoioiv. (Description of the first, "golden", generation of mankind:) 'They had all good things: the grain-giving field bore crops of its own accord, much and unstinting, and they themselves, willing, mild-mannered, shared out the fruits of their labors together with many good things, wealthy in sheep, dear to the blessed gods.' (Hes. Op. 116-120).
In this context, ^ouxo- may have been ambiguous between the meaning 'having one's fill, satisfied, having enough and more than that' (Lat. satis superque) > 'calm, gentle'. 19 As already mentioned, the opposite 'insatiate', aaxo?, is used with reference to the not very gentle god of war (Il. 5.388 'Apr? axo? nole^oio, etc.), and in the Latin Carmen Arvale his Roman equivalent Mars is asked to be satiated:
(19) Satur fu, fere Mars. Limen sali. Sta berber. 'Be satisfied, fierce Mars. Leap (over) the threshold. Stand berber.'
One possible interpretation would seem to be that personified war is invoked and asked to cease, i.e. to be calm and peaceful. 20
The same connection between 'satiety' and 'contentment, peaceful-ness' can be seen in other lexemes and complex NPs such as contentus beside satur (ex. (20)) andplenus beside aequo animo (ex. (21)):
(20) et exacto contentus tempore vita cedat, uti conviva satur. 'who, when his time is sped, will quit life in contentment, like a guest who has had his fill.' (Hor. S. 1, 118).
(21) Cur non utplenus vitae conviva recedis, Aequo animoque capis securam, stulte, quietem?
'Why not, like a banqueter fedfull of life, withdraw with contentment and rest in peace, you fool?' (Lucr. 3, 938).
19 Note also the co-occurrence of and ¿OeXr^o? ~ SKrlo?.
20 On the further interpretation of these parts of this difficult text referring to Mars cf. recently [Willi 2014] and [Willi 2018] on Mars Gradivus as the god of hail (Lat. grando).
Summary: Gk. ^ouxo? 'calm, gentle, quiet' may be a derivative with the suffix -xo- of a verbal abstract noun *hasu- < *seh2tu- 'satiety, satisfaction', indirectly attested in Lat. satur 'sated, satisfied'. Its meaning shifted from 'satiated, satisfied' to 'contented, calm, gentle, quiet'. 21
2. Across the calm: Lat. tranquillus
2.1. The etymology of Lat. tranquillus 'calm' is unclear, 22 Vine [2008] has reviewed the gamut of earlier proposals such as Nyman [1979], who starts from PIE *kueit- 'shine, be bright' (Lith. svieciu, etc.), discussing their respective weaknesses and adding his own hypothesis that derives the adjective from a hypostasis of a phrase consisting of trans 'having overcome' as a remnant of the aorist participle of PIE *terh2- 'to cross, overcome' and an l-stem *kues-el- 'gale, storm' derived from the root *kues- 'to blow, pant' (Lat. queror 'complain', Ved. svasiti, susma- 'power', etc.), i.e. *trans quele/om 'having overcome the storm' ^ *transquelio- (like e grege ^ egregius) > 'calm'. This l-stem, Vine assumes, might also be continued in Lat. querela 'complaint'.
21 Other sources for words meaning 'calm, gentle, friendly' are inter alia 'domesticated, nearby, at (the house)', cf. Kriloç (Hom.+) related to KiiÇro 'to settle', npâûç (h.Hom.+), if from *preh2 'in front, at, close by (sc. the house)', i.e. *preh2iu-, cf. [de Lamberterie 1990: 434-437]: n. "désigne l'animal qui fait partie de la maisonnée, qui appartient à un maître et habite avec lui.", -qmoç (Hom.+) if from ém 'at, nearby', related to Ved. api- 'friend', cf. [Pinault 1988] (differently Van Beek in [Beekes 2010: 523]: *h2e-h2p-i- 'fitting, allied'); the unexpected initial long vowel in •qps^a 'gently, softly; slightly' (PIE *hirem-, Ved. ramate 'rests', etc.) might be due to resegmentation of a negated form *n-hirem- > *vr|ps^- in contexts like *oùk 8%s vr|p8^a 'was not restless (i.e. calm)': s%sv -qpé^a 'kept calm'.
22 Cf. e.g. [Ernout, Meillet 2001: 699]: "Si le premier élément est trans-, on attendrait *tra(n)squillus. Composé expressif de formation obscure", [de Vaan 2008: 627]:
"The etymology as *trans 'across' + *k"Tlno- 'quiet' (root *kwihi- 'be quiet') is seman-tically vague (the meaning of trans does not fit); phonetically, the assumed development of *-nskw- > -nqu- is disputed. Also, the suffix is unclear."
Among the many merits of Vine's discussion are a) his clearly pointing out that tranquillus (p. 8) "refers first and foremost (and so probably in origin) to calm weather conditions at sea" against earlier claims that tranquillus originally meant 'transparent, clear', e.g. caelum tranquillum which is best understood as 'windless sky', whereas the 'bright sky' is caelum serenum; b) the clarification that tranquillus is most likely to go back to a prepositional phrase with trans; for the sound change -nskv-> -nkw- one may compare Lat. inquit 'says/said' beside insece 'say!'; 23 c) that -ill-, may go back to -il- (p. 6, 9) by the "littera-rule", cf. the variation found in filius /fillius; if indeed the form does have a short vowel /i/. 24 While the following considerations will be based on these premises, they differ from Vine's account due to the following points: a) the supposition that trans, if it lurks in tranquillus, should have retained its etymological perfective meaning 'having overcome' only in this word and is not used in its synchronic meaning 'across', is per se un-verifiable, i.e. the alternative is equally possible; b) the assumption that a phrase 'having overcome the storm' would (p. 9) "lead [...] naturally to an adjectival hypostasis with a sense 'calm'" seems to imply that the subject of the phrase is the sea (Lat. mare tranquillum), but there does not seem to be evidence for a frequent construction of the type "the sea has overcome the storm" in Latin; c) the supposed semantic shift from
23 Cf. [Vine 2008: 5; Weiss 2009: 181]: *en-si-skw-e-ti 'says' > *ensk"it > inquit beside insece 'say', Gk. evvene, cf. the analysis in [Hackstein 1997]. Weiss [2020: 197] adds as a further example *ko-en-s(e)k-e-ti 'prunes' > *coincit ^ coinquit "with hy-percorrect labiovelar".
24 As Vine (loc. cit.) points out, there is "no evidence, either from Latin or Romance, for or against long [i] in this word", cf. in this sense with "?" [Ernout, Meillet 2001: 699]: "tranquillus (-i-?) de quies"; cf. also [Sen 2015: 73]: "Where a high, front vowel precedes a clear, palatalized /1/ (see §§ 2.3.4 and 2.3.5), it is notoriously difficult acoustically to pinpoint the moment at which the vowel ends and the /1/ begins [...], inviting the reconstruction of synchronic variation between /V: 1/ and /Vll/, e.g.fi:lius —fillius", and in the summary on p. 75: "A third group, 'front vowel + /1/', was also identified, and again a phonetically based account was forthcoming; both the data and the predictions of the account indicate that a V:C > VCC direction of change was more likely here."
'having crossed through (or overcome) a/the gale' to 'calm' does not seem to be compelling, one might also suppose different outcomes such as 'exhausted, tired', 'victorious', 'being beyond' or 'safe and sound; happy' as in Gk. ao^evo^ from PIE *nes- 'to attain one's goal, return'; 25 d) an open question is the phonological development of the supposed sequence *-elio- > *-Tlio- > <ill>, understood "to show the full 'absorption' of the high vowel and palatal glide of the suffix into a palatal liquid." This seems to be contradicted by the general retention of the sequence /ili/ in cases likeJilius (Jllus), familia Qfamilla) and names like Aemilius, Pompilius, etc.
2.2. The "standard" interpretation adopted by most scholars 26 compares Gmc. *hwila- (ON hvila 'bed', Goth. heila 'period, while', Eng. while, Germ. Weile 'period of time', etc.) 27 and reconstructs a pre-form *trans-qui-lo- for Latin ultimately related to PIE *kwiehi- 'to (come to) rest, repose' (Lat. quiesco, quietus, OP siyata- 'happy', Arm. hangc'im, hangist '(to) rest', etc., OCS pociti, -cijQ 'to rest', cf. [LIV2: 393]). This "both phonologically and morphologically" and "superficially attractive comparison" [Vine 2008: 1] is rejected by Vine due to the semantic difficulties, which arise under the supposition that trans is used here in its etymological sense 'having overcome s.th.': the phrase should mean the opposite of what it does, i.e. "'across or beyond rest/quiet or (still worse, with etymological meaning) 'getting through or overcoming rest/quiet'." In what follows it will be argued that a non-selfcontradictory interpretation with trans in its synchronic meaning 'across' is possible.
25 Cf. e.g. Pl. Trin. 1087 ego miserrumis periclis sum per maria maxuma / uectus, capitali periclo per praedones plurumos / me seruaui, saluos redii. 'Under the most wretched dangers I've travelled through the greatest seas, under danger to my life I've got safely through very many pirates, and I've returned safe and sound.'
26 Cf. [Vine 2008: 1] with further references, e.g. [Vanicek 1881: 318]; [Muller 1926: 493]: "Wohl Hypostase < (in)träns+quilom eig. 'durchdringend, durchmessend die Meeresstille'"; [Pokorny 1959: 638]; and more recently [Hackstein 2003: 56]: "*№ihilo- > lat. tranquillus, *^ihi-leh2 > nhd. Weile".
27 Cf. [Kroonen 2013: 266-267].
2.3. It is assumed (a) that the comparison with Gmc. *hMfla- 28 allows the reconstruction of a similar noun and adjective in early Latin, viz. * quilos!om 'rest(ing), calm' > *quillos/om, from PIE *kwiehi- 'to rest', and that, like its supposed successor tranquillus, it frequently occurred in the construction 'sail (across) the calm (sea)', both as direct object and together with the local particle / preposition trans, i.e. [V] (trans) quilum (mare), e.g. *vehor, curro, navigo etc. (trans) quilum, comparable to cases like Verg. A. 1, 524 ventis maria omnia vecti, Verg. A. 1, 67 Tyrrhenum navigat ae-quor, Hor. Ep. 1.11, 27 qui trans mare currunt, etc. 29 As a "transferred epithet" of the type Lat. terra '(dry earth' * quilum may have referred to the 'calm (sc. sea)' by itself, like the later neuter noun tranquillum 'calm sea'. 30
The second assumption (b) made here is that the simplex *quillus/m was lost and that consequently the phrase * trans quilum was no longer interpretable as consisting of two words. This licenced univerbation, which in turn made the phonological development of the word-internal sequence *-nskw- > -nkw- possible. At this stage, Latin had gained a new noun tranquillum 'the calm sea' occurring in this specific construction.
Finally, (c) in the phrases [V] tranquillum 'sail the calm sea' and [V] tranquillo 'sail on the calm (sea)' (e.g. Liv. 31, 23, 4 tranquillopervectus Chalcidem), the verbal argument / adjunct could be reinterpreted as an adverb 'calmly'. Formally, this was possible because respective verbs like navigo, veho(r) could be used both as intransitives ('sail') and transitives
28 For the meaning 'rest, repose' cf. beside ON hvila 'bed' also Grimm Wb. s. v. Weile: "2) gröszeren raum nimmt im freien gebrauch die bed. 'musze' ein, von den theoretikern durch synonyma gesichert: tantumne ab re tua est otij tibi? hast du deiner geschäfften halb so vil weyl oder musz? Frisius dict. (1556) 1b; [...] hatt yhm musz und weyl datzu nommen Luther 8, 354 Weim."
29 Cf. also the compound verb transveho(r), e.g., Sen. Her. F. 889 trans-vectus vada Tartari 'He crossed the waters of Tartarus.'
30 The image is common in Latin, cf. with quiesco and quietus, derivatives of the same root *kwiehi- supposed here for tranquillus, Verg. A. 7, 6-7 alta quierunt/ aequora 'the high sea has become calm', Hor. Ep. 10, 11 quietiore [...] aequore 'on calmer sea',placidus, Ov. Pont. 3, 44placidis ... aquis, lentus, Lucr. 5, 434 aequora lenta iacent, alto torpore ligatae 'The sea lay motionless; chained in dead calm', etc.
('sail (across/on) the sea'), and because oblique case forms of nouns and adjectives can be used as adverbs, cf. modus 'measure' ^ modo 'even, only', continuus ^ continuo 'immediately', multus 'many' ^ multum 'much',parvus 'small' ^parum 'hardly', ceterus 'other' ^ ceterum, cet-ero, cetera 'as for the rest', creber 'frequent' ^ crebro, crebra 'often', etc.; semantically, because in most cases 'across/on the calm sea' would imply 'calmly across/on the sea'. The adverbial interpretation of tranquillo, tranquillum in turn allowed the creation of other case, number and gender forms for the corresponding adnominal use, following the same models just quoted, i.e. correlations such as creber : crebro, multus : multum triggered a full nominal paradigm tranquillus, -a, -um based on the forms tranquillum, -o.31 The NP mare tranquillum is therefore a formal "renewal" of a phrase meaning 'calm sea' by itself originally.
2.4. Supporting evidence for this scenario may be seen on the one hand in the Latin (and probably already Italic) productivity of univerbations of prepositional phrases, with and without derivational morphology. For the latter type cf. pro consule ^ proconsul, pro praetore ^ propraetor, etc. Similarly to what is hypothesized here for tranquillus, the PPpro consule used adverbially occurs in similar contexts as the noun derived from it, proconsul, cf.
(22) cum pro consule expraetura in Graeciam venisset...
'When, after his praetor-ship, he went to Greece as proconsul.' (Cic.
Leg. 1, 20, 53).
(23) L. Manliusproconsul exHispania redierat...
'The proconsul L. Manlius had returned from Spain.' (Liv. 39, 29, 4).
31 Note that taken together the forms that may have served as pivot for the creation of a full adjectival paradigm are the most frequently attested forms in a raw count of the "Classical Latin Texts" (PHI) database (Available at: https://latin.packhum.org, accessed on 12.9.2020): tranquillo 77, tranquillum 40, tranquilla 68 (of which 32* n. pl., cf. the pl. use of words meaning 'sea', e.g. Verg. A. 2, 203 tranquilla per alta 'over the peaceful depths (i.e. of the sea)', V. Fl. 2, 608 tranquilla sub aequora), tranquillus 20 (of which 8 PN Tranquillus, hence only 12 tokens of the common noun), tranquilli 12, tranquillae 10, tranquillam 8, tranquillis 6, tranquillas 5, tranquillos 2, tranquillarum 1, tranquillorum 0.
This may be compared with the prepositional / adverbial use of tranquil-lum e.g. in Terence (ex. (24)) beside the adjective e.g. in Sallust (ex. (25)):
(24) tum autem Phaedriae
meo fratri gaudeo esse amorem omnem in tranquillo.
'And then I'm delighted for my brother Phaedria, whose whole
affair is in calm waters' (Ter. Eu. 1038). 32
(25) tutae tranquillaeque res omnes... 'Everything was quiet and tranquil.' (Catul. 16, 5).
A trajectory similar to that of tranquillus may be assumed for Lat. commodus 'suitable, proper, due': Leumann, Hofmann, Szantyr [1977: 402] derive the adjective from the PP *com modo 'with measure' and, as in the case of tranquillus, adverbial forms commodum, commodo 'even now, just' (Plt.+) and a neuter noun commodum n. 'advantage, profit' are attested next to the adjective:
PP adv. neuter noun adj.
*com modo commodum/-o commodum, -i commodus, -a, -um *trans \quillum *tranquillum, tranquillum, -i tranquillus, -a, -um tranquillo
Derivation with additional morphology is known from many instances beside egregius already quoted, e.g. a via 'off the track' ^ avius 'trackless, untrodden', se dolo 'without deceit' ^ sedulus 'diligently', perfidem 'by oath' ^ perfidus 'treacheous'—the latter example highlights once more the necessity to include phraseology into the etymological account of these cases (as pointed out by Vine (loc. cit.): qui per fidem de-cipit 'who deceives by/even under oath'). 33
32 Greek influence is possible in this use, cf. S. El. 899: 5' ev yaX^vr) ndvT' s5epKo^nv Tonov. 'But when I perceived that all the place was in stillness', cf. also the adjective yal^vo^ 'calm, quiet', e.g. E. Or. 279: sk Ku^draiv yap ai)0i<; ai) yal^v' opro... 'Once more the storm is past, I see a calm' (Coleridge).
33 Cf. [Leumann et al. 1977: 402; Vine 2008: 7, fn. 19] with more examples and literature.
On the other hand, as noted above, the frequent use of tranquillus in the context of sailing and the sea and the direct or indirect references to this context when used in others make it a strong candidate as the original construction out of which the adjective developed as described above, cf. for the former a case of the co-occurrence of tranquillum mare and tranquillum with ellipsis of the head noun:
(26) quilibet nautarum uectorumque tranquillo mari gubernare potest; ubi saeua orta tempestas est ac turbato mari rapitur uento nauis, tum uiro et gubernatore opus est. non tranquillo nauigamus. 'Any member of the crew or passengers can steer a ship when the sea is calm; when a raging tempest has arisen and the ship is driven by the wind over a turbulent sea, what is then needed is a man of action, a helmsman. We are not sailing a calm sea.' (Liv. 24, 8, 12).
For the transferred use 'calm mind, calm state of affairs, etc.' harking back to the original image, two examples from Plautus may suffice: 34
(27) pamph. Quid agitur, Epignome? epign. Quid tu? quam dudum in portum venis?
pamph. Hau longissume. epign. Postilla iam iste est tranquillus tibi?
ant. Magis quam mare quo ambo estis vecti. 'pamph. How are you, Epignomus?
epign. And how are you? How long ago did you come into harbor? pamph. Not long at all after you.
epign. Is that chap calm toward you now? (points to Antipho) ant. More so than the sea you both traveled on.' (Plt. St. 529f.).
34 Cf. [Vine 2008: 8]: "While metaphorical extensions to other states of 'calm' (such as a mental state) are already well-established in Plautus, the meteorological and even nautical basis of such extensions is still clear: e.g. Pl. Poen. 753 tranquillitas [scil. animi] euenit quasi naui in mari 'a calmness [in his spirit] came about, just as for a ship at sea.' It seems legitimate to compare the Epicurean axapa^ia and yaXqvn 'calm sea' and 'calmness of mind', cf. also A. Ag. 740 ^povr^a vrvs^ou yaXava? 'a spirit of windless calm', Pl. Leg. 791a ya^qvrv ^OT>%iav xe ev xfl yuxfi.
(28) evt. potin ut animo sis tranquillo? char. quid si mi animus fluctuat? evt. ego istum in tranquillo, quieto, tuto sistam: ne time. 'eut. Can't you have a calm mind?
char. What if my mind is being tossed about by the waves? eut. I'll place it in a calm, quiet, safe place. Stop being afraid.' (Pl. Mer. 890). 35
2.5. Summary: Assuming that the similarity between Gmc. *hwila-and Lat. (tran-)quillum is not fortuitous, but represents one of the many isoglosses of these Western Indo-European languages (similar to *gheud-'pour', Lat. fundere, -o, Gmc. *geuta-, Lat. nassa 'basket', Gmc. *natia-'net', etc.), a scenario for the inner-Latin development of the adjective tranquillus may be proposed that starts from its frequent occurrence in the construction 'sail (across) the calm sea', [V] (trans) *quillum (mare), which, after the loss of the simplex *quillo-, developed into tranquillum which was interpretable as an adverb 'calm(ly)' that in turn gave rise to the corresponding adjective tranquillus whose use in most instances still betrays the original construction it hails from.
Abbreviations
adj. — adjective; adv. — adverb; aor. — aorist; gen. — genitive; n. — neuter.
Aeol. —Aeolic; Arm. —Armenian; Dor. — Doric; Eng. — English; Gk. — Greek; Germ. — German; Gmc. — Germanic; Goth. — Gothic; Hitt. — Hittite; Hom. — Homeric
35 It seems likely that the frequent phrase aequo animo (whence aequanimitas Ter.+, aequanimiter) is based on the same metaphor ("with a mind as calm as the sea"), since aequus may also refer to the even, i.e. calm surface of the sea, substantivized in aequor 'plane surface (land/sea)'. If 'sparkling, bright (surface)' is the original meaning of aequus (cf. Gmc. *glada- 'even, slippery; shining, glad' in Germ. glatt 'even' and NE glad) it might be equated with Gk. ai0oy 'sparkling' (cf. Hom. ai0ona oivov), i.e. thematized
*h2eidl-h3(o)kw-o- (> *aid(a/o)kwo- > *ai(k)kwo-) with vowel syncope in the context of dental and velar stops (e.g. *audaciter > audacter 'boldly') or identical stops (e.g. *ce-date > cette 'Give!' [2pl]), assimilation of -TK- > -KK- as in *adkausa-> accusa- 'to charge' and simplification of the geminate, cf. the image of the bright and even surface of the sea (aequor) in Lucr. 1, 8 tibi ridentaequoraponti 'For you the wide stretches of ocean laugh.'
Greek; Lat. — Latin; Latv. — Latvian; Lith. — Lithuanian; ME—Middle English;
MHG—Middle High German; MLG—Middle Low German; OCS — Old Church
Slavonic; OE—Old English; OIr. — Old Irish; ON—Old Norse; OP—Old Persian;
OPr. — Old Prussian; PIE—Proto-Indo-European; Pit. — Proto-Italic; Skt. — Sanskrit; Swed. — Swedish; Toch. — Tocharian; Ved. — Vedic; WGmc. — West Germanic.
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