CC BY
4Tingshu Hu,
Huaiyin Institute of Technology, China E-mail: xuyujie@hyit.edu.cn
Abstract. The formal beauty of Tang poetry is shown in its symmetry, variety, harmony and unity. The form is an integral part of Tang poetry and even can be considered as a soul of metrical poetry, so it should be retained in the process of translation. In effect, some forms shared by both Tang poetry and English poetry can almost be reproduced in the target language, such as rhyme, rhythm, line length, poetic type and antithesis, whereas such forms as pun, huwen, palindrome peculiar to Tang poetry are difficult to be preserved or even irreproducible because language is the carrier of form and the form cannot exist outside language.
Key words: formal translation, Tang poetry, musical form, visual form, rhetorical form.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from Philosophy and Social Science Fund Project for Jiangsu Universities "A Study of Formal
Translation of Tang Poetry from the Perspective of Cognitive Poetics" (MUM^MW (Grant No. 2020SJA1798).
1. Introduction
Tang poetry symbolizes the zenith of Chinese poetry. It mainly refers to
modern-style/recent-style poetry which has three major types:
Jueju (truncated verse), Lvshi (regulated verse), and Pailv (long regulated verse). Lvshi is a kind of poem which consists of eight lines of five or seven Chinese characters; each line is set down in accordance with strict tonal patterns; parallel structure is called for in the middle (second and third) couplets; Jueju is a shortened version of Lvshi which omits either the first four lines, or the last four lines, or the first two and the last two lines, or the middle four lines; Pailv refers to long regulated verse that has ten or more than ten lines. In this paper, we mainly discuss the formal translation of Jueju and Lvshi.
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The beauty of Tang poetry is expressed in the integrity of spirit and form. And the form is essential to Tang poetry. if the form is not well reproduced in the target text, the beauty of Tang poetry would be impaired to a great extent. In attempting to understand the formal beauty of Tang poetry, it is important to define its form. Generally speaking, the forms of Tang poetry refer to its peculiar metrical arrangements and inherent elements which distinguish Tang poetry from other literary genres, and they can be roughly classified into three kinds: musical forms (tone, rhythm and rhyme, etc.), visual forms (line length, poetic type, etc.) and rhetorical forms (antithesis, pun, huwen, palindrome, etc.).
2. Overview of Tang Poetry Translation
Tang poetry translation started as early as the 18th century, when S. Jenyns, a British sinologist, began to render Tang poetry into English. After Jenyns' death, lots of noted figures emerged and have made great contributions to poetic translation, for example, H. A. Giles (1898), E. Pound (1915), A. D. Waley (1918; 1962), W. Bynner and Kiang Kang-hu (1929), W. J. Fletcher (1925), A. C. Graham (1965) and S. Owen (1996), and so on. And Chinese translators started to translate Tang poetry in the 20th century, for example, Cai Tinggan (1932), Wu Juntao (1985), Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang (1984; 2005), Weng Xianliang (1985), Xu Yuanchong (1984; 1988; 2006; 2018), Xu Zhongjie (1990), Zhang Tingchen and Bruce M. Wilson (1991; 2007) as well as Sun Dayu (2007), etc.
In the process of translating Tang poetry, a widespread contention is that the form of poetry is untranslatable or the original content /sense /image will be inevitably damaged if the form is preserved in the target language. Consequently, the main dilemma for the poetic translator is to choose between preserving content and retaining form. For example, Bian Zhilin, Chen Zuwen, and J. Turner opt for formal reproduction, whereas Weng Xianliang, Feng Huazhan and Liu Ching-chih favor reproduction of content or spirit.
In terms of content and form, Zhu Guangqian argues that the form should be considered as the soul of poetry. In translating poetry, if a translator only reproduces the sense or content, what is translated is not poetry but prose. Only when the style or form, such as sound, rhyme and rhythm, is reproduced, can the translated poem be a poem (Yang & Liu, 2003). Perhaps it would be safe to assume that formal reproduction happens where there already exist the similar forms in the target language. However, some forms peculiar to the original poem are difficult to be translated or even untranslatable due to the significant differences between the source and target languages. In fact, formal translation is not only necessary for the target reader to appreciate the original form in its entirety, but also essential for the target audience to absorb foreign forms into their own language. For instance, Edward
Fitzgerald's translation of The Rubaiyat is a successful example that
reproduces the original form in the target language and introduces a new poetic form to the target culture.
Xu Yuanchong (2018:119) once said, "Translation is difficult; poetry translation is more difficult, and metrical poetry translation is the most difficult." However,
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formal translation may be the most difficult for translation of metrical poetry. As a direct consequence of the positions above, the aim of this paper is to explore the extent to which the poetic forms can or cannot be retained in the target language. Specifically, we will investigate what forms are full-reproducible, what forms are semi -reproducible and what forms are irreproducible. 3. Musical Forms
Musical forms of Tang poetry mainly refers to its tone, rhyme and rhythm, which can produce beautiful melody for the reader. 3.1 Tone
Musicality is the inherent and essential attribute of poetry. Chinese characters are syllable words. In general, a Chinese character is a syllable (except for rhotic accent). At the same time, Chinese is also a tonal language. The high and low of the sound and the changes of its length make the Chinese language sound harmonious and pleasant. The pronunciation of Chinese characters is composed of three elements:
initials finals and tones (^ii). Due to the different tones, the same
initials and finals will constitute different Chinese characters. According to the rise and fall of pronunciation of finals, there are flat tones (1^^), rising tones (ffi^),
falling-rising tones and falling tones namely, "four tones" (the first,
second, third and fourth tones) in modern Chinese. Among them, the first and second
tones are called level tones (marked by the sign"o"), and the third and fourth
tones are called oblique tones (K) (marked by "•") in metrical poetry. Besides, in
ancient Chinese, there is a type of pronunciation called an entering tone (A^) with short, urgent, and no-ending sound. And entering tones also belong to the category of oblique tones.
Obviously, there are no "four tones" in English, but there are unstressed sounds (marked by the sign"o") and stressed sounds (marked by "•"). Chinese metrical poetry puts stress on the tonal pattern and thus can be rendered into English in the form of iamb, trochee, dactyl, anapest or dactylic, etc. Theoretically, the Chinese tonal pattern "o»" can be translated into iambus, "•o" into trochee, "oo»" into anapest, "•oo" into dactylic and "o»o" into amphibrach. In fact, it is difficult to fully achieve such an effect. For example,
ST:
im^rn^mM,
lAlfHtlo
TT: Swallow's Lane (By Liu Yuxi)
Beside the Zhuque Bridge wild flowers thickly grow,
Along the Wuyi Lane the sun is setting low.
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Where once the swallows knew the mansions of the great,
They now to humbler homes would fly to nest and mate.
(Translated by Cai Tinggan)
The original poem is a Jueju, and the tonal pattern of the whole poem goes as follows: o^oo»»o/ oo»#»oo/ •oo»oo^/ o^oo»»o. The translator adopts iambus (o^ o^ o^ o^ o^ o^) each line to translate Chinese tonal pattern and thus the original formal beauty is more or less preserved in the target language.
3.2 Rhythm
Rhythm of metrical poetry refers to a strong regular repeated pattern of sounds
or movements. The basic unit of Tang poetry is a caesura (®), whereas English poetry is a foot. In the process of translating, it is possible to make the number of feet equal to that of caesuras. That is to say, a caesura can be substituted by a foot in translation. For example,
ST:
TT: A Complaint in Spring (By Jin Changxu)
Drive or/ioles off / the tree,
For their / songs a/wake me.
From drea/ming of / my dear,
Far off / on the / frontier.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)
Generally speaking, a five-charactered Tang poem contains three caesuras per line with the rhythm pattern of 2/2/1 or 2/1/2. Xu Yuanchong adopts a trimeter (i.e. three feet per line) to translate the original poem because the source text contains three caesuras per line. The number of rhythms each line of the target text is equal to that of the source text. In other words, the original rhythm can be fully reproduced in the target language.
Next, Let us examine a seven-charactered poem.
ST:
TT: The Golden Dress (Anonymous)
Love not / your gol / den dress, / I pray,
More than / your youth / ful gol / den hours.
Gather / sweet blos / soms while / you may,
And not / the twig / devoid / of flowers!
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)
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The source text is a seven-charactered Tang poem with the rhythm patterns of 2/2/2/1 and 2/2/1/2. This poem has a strong rhythm which reveals the rhythmic beauty of Tang poetry.
The source text has four caesuras each line and the target text contains four feet per line. In other words, the rhythm of the target text is equivalent to that of the source text. Both of them have a strong rhythm and achieve the similar effect of musical beauty. Hence, the rhythmic pattern of Tang poetry can be fully reproduced in the target language.
3.3 Rhyme
Rhyme refers to the use of words in a poem that have the same sound, especially at the end of lines. In detail, at the end of the poems, the words of the same or similar finals are used to make the rhyme harmonious or produce a sonorous sense of harmony in recitation or chanting. In general, most poems are rhyming, ancient or modern, Chinese or foreign, which also distinguishes poems from other genres of literature.
In modern-type poetry, rhyme refers to the recurrence of the same finals in the same position of even lines. For Jueju or Lvshi, the regulations of rhyme are: (i) the last character of the first sentence does not rhyme or rhyme; (ii) the last character of the even sentences must rhyme; (iii) the even sentences only rhyme with level tones instead of oblique tones; and (iv) the same finals of the even lines cannot change. In detail, the rhyme scheme of Jueju is ABCB (not rhyming in the first line) or AABA (rhyming in the first line), and the rhyme scheme of Lvshi is ABCBDBEB (not rhyming in the first line) or AABACADA (rhyming in the first line).
As we know, the poetic types of Tang poetry (Jueju and Lvshi) and English metrical poetry (quatrain and ottava rima) have much in common, but the rhyme schemes are different. Generally, the rhyme scheme of English quatrain is ABAB, or AABB, or ABBA, or AAAA, and the rhyme scheme of English ottava rima is ABABABCC. Thus, when translating Tang poetry into English, some translators opt to preserve Chines rhyme schemes whereas some opt to use English rhyme schemes.
Let us take a Jueju as an example.
ST: (it)
A B
rnm^MW,, c
^tiffilo B
TT1: Love Seeds (By Wang Wei)
The red bean grows in southern lands. A
With spring its slender tendrils twine, B
Gather for me some more, I pray, C
Of fond remembrance 'tis the sign. B
(Translated by Fletcher)
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TT2: Love Seeds (By Wang Wei) Red berries grow in southern land. In spring they overload the trees. Gather them till full in your hand. They would revive fond memories. (Translated by Xu Yuanchong) TT3: Red Beans (By Wang Wei)
A B A B
Red Beans come from the southern land.
In spring, the trees grow some new wands.
Please pluck more of these seeds with your hands.
To show your love to friends it's grand.
(Translated by Wu Juntao)
TT4: Red Beans (By Wang Wei)
Red Beans are grown in a southern clime;
A few branches burgeon in spring time.
On your lap, try to gather as many as you can
The best reminder of love between woman and man
A B B A
A A B B
(Translated by Xu Zhongjie)
The original poem uses the rhyme scheme of ABCB. In TT1, Fletcher also uses the rhyme scheme of ABCB in order to reproduce the original rhyme scheme, whereas TT2, TT3 and TT4 use the rhyme schemes of English quatrain respectively, i.e., ABAB, ABBA, and AABB in order to cater for the target language reader.
4. Visual Forms
The visual beauty of Tang poetry mainly refers to its line length and poetic type, which displays Tang poetry's uniformity, symmetry, circulation as well as unity, and produces beautiful effect of vision for the reader.
4.1 Line Length
For Chinese poetry, line length refers to the number of Chinese characters in each line; for English poetry, line length refers to the number of the syllables or feet per line. Generally, each line of Tang poetry (Jueju and Lvshi) consists of five or seven Chinese characters. Each character is one syllable whereas each English word can have more than one syllable. Hence, in the process of translation, one Chinese character cannot match one English word completely. One character, however, can roughly match one foot or two English syllables.
For English metrical poetry, the first letter of every line is written in capital, but each line of poetry is not necessarily a complete sentence, nor does it necessarily express a complete meaning. Sometimes a line is a sentence, but sometimes two or even more lines constitute a complete sentence. The former is called end-stopped line, and the latter run-on line.
The lengths of English poetic lines usually range from one foot to eight feet per line, but the most common is four or five feet. And they have technical terms from one foot to eight feet, i.e., monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, heptameter and octameter.
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In general, five-charactered lines of Tang poetry can be translated into pentameter lines of English metrical poetry, and seven-charactered lines into heptameter lines. Thus, the formal beauty of Tang poetry can be reproduced in the target language to a certain extent. For example,
ST:
It^Hito
TT: At the War (By Wang Changling) See the young wife whose bosom ne'er has ached with cruel pain! In gay array she mounts the tower when spring comes round again. Sudden she sees the willow trees their newest green put on, • And sighs for her husband far away
in search of glory gone. (Translated by H. A. Giles)
The original poem is a Jueju, which has four lines and seven Chinese characters per line. Although the original four-line poem is translated into eight lines, the first words of the even lines are indented and not capitalized in order to make readers regard the translation as a four-line poem. Thus, seven feet of each line are equal to seven characters per line of the source text.
Let us take a look at a five-charactered poem.
ST: (^fi)
TT: Alone on the Ching-ting Hills (By Li Bai) The birds have flown away on pinions high, A cloud in heedless mood goes floating by. The two that never change their fixed regard, Are ye, fair Ching-ting Hills, and I, your bard. (Translated by Cai Tinggan)
The original five-charactered Jueju is rendered into a poem of iambic pentameter. Thus, the length of the target text is equivalent to that of the source text. In other words, the original form is preserved in the target text to a certain/great degree. 4.2 Poetic Type
Poetic type here refers to the number of lines of a poem or stanza. Generally speaking, Tang poetry mainly has two kinds of poetic types: four-line type (Jueju) and
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eight-line type (Lvshi), whereas the poetic types of English metrical poetry are more complicated. According to the number of lines, the latter can be divided into couplet, tercet, quatrain, quintet, hexastich, heptastich (rhyme royal), ottava rima, Spenserian stanza and sonnet, etc.
In the process of translation, Jueju can be translated into quatrain and Lvshi into ottava rima. As discussed above, however, quatrain's and ottava rima's rhyme schemes are different from those of Juejue and Lvshi respectively. Let us take a look at the translation of Jueju.
ST: (^fi)
TT: A Tranquil Night (By Li Bai) Before my bed I see a silver light, I think the ground is covered with hoar frost. Raising my head, I find the full moon bright, And bowing down, in thoughts of home I'm lost.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong) 9
Since the original poem is a Jueju that consists of four lines, the translator also renders it into a four-line poem. Let us look at the translation of Lvshi.
ST: (M)
IMiAt.iftiiro
TT1: Spring Night with Happy Rain (By Du Fu)
A good rain knows the season when it's right, In spring, on time, it makes things sprout and grow. Follow the wind, sneak out into the night: All moist things whisper silently and slow. Above the wild path, black clouds fill the air, The boatlamp on the flood the only glow; At dawn you see wet mounds of crimson where.
(Translated by F. Turner) TT 2: Glad at Raining in a Spring Night (By Du Fu) Gracious raining knoweth its timely season; Down it cometh promptly during springtide. Following breezes it slinketh by at nightfall. Things to soothe, minutely, mutely to bide. Topping with paths, clouds amass the loom black, Lights on a river barque alone do shine bright.
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Look ye by dawn wherever red and moistened:
Flowers blow the Brocade-robed Officials' Town with delight.
(Translate by Sun Dayu)
Obviously, the original poem contains eight lines, and poetic style is fully reproduced in both translations. In other words, the poetic type of Tang poetry can be fully reproduced in the target language.
5. Rhetorical Forms
The forms discussed above can be reproduced to a certain/great extent in translation. Next, we will take a look at translation of rhetorical forms of Tang poetry to see what forms can or cannot be translated.
5.1 Antithesis
Antithesis, a rhetorical device, is used to create literary effects of balance, harmony, and a sense of rhythm. It is an inherent and essential requirement of Lvshi. Exactly speaking, antithesis (similar to parallelism) is required in the second and third couplets of Lvshi. Antithesis is also very common in English poetry. In translating Tang poetry, antithesis can be reproduced in the target language. For instance,
ST: (M)
TT: On the Heights (By Du Fu)
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower;
The endless river rolls its waves hour by hour.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)
The translation fully reproduces the antithesis of the source text. In detail, the adjective "boundless" is balanced with the adjective "endless"; the noun "forest" is parallel to the noun "river", and so are the nouns "leaves" and "waves"; the verb "shed" is matched with the verb "roll"; and the phrase "shower by shower" is paired with the phrase "hour by hour". Obviously, the original formal effect of antithesis is fully retained in the target language.
5.2 Pun
Translation of pun is also a tough issue. A pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with two meanings, or of words with the same pronunciation but different meanings. In general, the pun in Chinese can be divided into three kinds: (i) the pronunciation is similar or identical, but the form and the meaning are different; (ii) the pronunciation and the form are similar or identical, whereas meanings are different; and (iii) the pronunciation and the meaning are similar or identical, while forms are different. Though there are puns in English too, it is difficult to achieve original effect in translating poetry owing to significant differences between the source and target languages. For example,
ST:
TT: The silkworm till its death spins silk from love-sick heart.
(Translated by Xu Yuanchong)
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The original Chinese character "M" (silk) shares the same pronunciation as
another Chinese character ">S" (miss), and the rhetorical device pun is used here. The meaning of the source text is that the silkworm will not end spinning until its death, which implies that the affection between lovers will last long and not change until they
are dead. Xu Yuanchong translates the Chinese character "M" into "silk", and its
homophone ">S" into "love-sick", while "sick" and "silk" not only share the similar pronunciation, but also have a similar form, thus reproducing the original "acoustic beauty" and "formal beauty" in the target language to a certain degree. As a matter of fact, the effect of the target text is far from that of the source text.
5.3 Huwen
Huwen (5^), a rhetorical device, is often used in poetry and prose. Specifically, it means that two parts in one line or different lines seem to state two things, but in fact, they are complementary to each other and state one thing so they should be understood as a whole.
There are many poems using huwen in Tang poetry, but the translation of huwen still makes the reader regretful. For example,
ST: (il^«^®)
TT1: The moon goes back to the time of Qin, the wall to the time of Han. (Translated by Bynner)
TT2: The age-moon still shines o'er the ancient Great Wall. (Translated by Xu Yuanchong)
In the original poem, (Qin) and "X" (Han), " (moon) and (wall) belong to huwen in the same sentence, meaning "the bright moon of Qin and Han dynasties as well as the wall of Qin and Han Dynasties". However, Bynner's translation means "the moon of Qin dynasty and the wall of Han dynasty", which is far from the original meaning. Although Xu's translation retains the original meaning to some degree, the effect of huwen of the source text is not reproduced in the target language at all.
Let us look at another example.
ST:
TT1: I, the host, dismounted and saw the guest in the boat (Translated by Xu Yuanchong)
TT2: Having dismounted our horses and boarded his boat (Translated by Zhang Tingchen & Bruce M. Wilson)
This line also uses huwen, meaning that "the host and the guest dismounted the horses and boarded the boat together". Obviously, Xu's translation does not preserve the effect of the original huwen. Although Zhang and Wilson's translation is close to the original meaning, the effect of huwen is lost completely.
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5.4 Palindrome
Palindrome is a word or a phrase or even a sentence or a poem that is the same whether the reader reads it forwards or backwards. Palindromic words and sentences are very common in English, but palindromic verses are rarely seen. Palindromic verses are common in Chinese, but they are difficult to be translated. Let us take a
palindromic verse as an example. If we read from back
to front, the source text becomes In Chinese, the line in
a proper order has the similar effect to the line in an inverted order. It is a pity that no translations can achieve the original effect.
6. Conclusion
The beauty of Tang poetry is the high integration of content and form. In a sense, the form is more important for poetry, especially for the metrical poetry. It is not advisable to sacrifice form for content in poetic translation. Hence, reproduction of the formal beauty of Tang poetry is an inherent requirement in translation. In the process of translating, some forms shared by both Tang poetry and English metrical poetry can be fully reproduced in the target language, such as rhyme, rhythm, poetic type, antithesis; some forms are semi-reproducible, such as tonal pattern, line length; and some forms peculiar to Tang poetry are irreproducible, such as pun, huwen, palindrome because the form cannot exist outside the language.
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