CC BY
58Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 9 (2015 8) 1816-1833
yflK 159.923.2
Emotional Security of People
Olga Yu. Zotova*
Liberal Arts University - University for Humanities 24a Surikova Str., Of. 215, Ekaterinburg, 620144, Russia
Received 24.02.2015, received in revised form 09.05.2015, accepted 11.08.2015
The article analyzes psychological concepts, unfolds the essence, conditions and structure ofemotional security. It shows a role of emotional security in ontogeny. The author discusses a connection between emotional security and attachment. The article also presents results of the study, the purpose of which was to study the relation of emotional security/insecurity and dependence/independence and such psychological characteristics as pessimism/optimism, indifference/sympathy; dependence-autonomy; anxiety/calmness and aggression/tolerance. Depending on the state of security/insecurity and dependence/independence the four groups of subjects were identified with the following features: secure-independent - optimism and tolerance; secure-dependent - optimism and anxiety; insecure-dependent - tolerance and anxiety and insecure-independent - autonomy and calmness. It is proved that the presence of a sense of security indicates the person's possession of internal resources to confront new threats and dangerous situations. The sense of security affects the interpretation of the future and the attitude to life.
Keywords: emotional security, attachment, sense of security, dependency, personality. DOI: 10.17516/1997-1370-2015-8-9-1816-1833. Research area: philosophy.
Introduction
Security is mostly superstition.
Avoiding danger is no safer in the long run
than outright exposure.
Life is either a daring adventure, or nothing.
(Helen Adams Keller)
Any human activity is accompanied by emotions that are based on sensory reflection of the need significance of external influences, their benefit or harm to the security of a personality. Emotions generate different experiences that play the role of internal signals and are expressed in
the form of immediate experiences of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with actual human needs.
A basic human need is a need for security -an anthropological constant of human existence. It comes with the emergence of a person himself and accompanies him throughout his life. That is why a person needs to feel his connection with the outside world, other people, his belonging to certain social groups and public institutions. A person starts to feel security only when it penetrates into the sphere of his emotional relationships, when it is refracted and fixed in it. Therefore, consideration of the problem of the emotional side of the phenomenon of security
© Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved
* Corresponding author E-mail address: [email protected]
- 1816 -
is an important original feature of the theory that determines the requirements for it and expectations.
One of the first scientists, whose name was mentioned in connection with emotional security, was a Canadian psychologist Dr. William E. Blatz who believed that all behaviour of an individual in all areas of his life can be interpreted in terms of security. In his theory, a goal of every person, regardless of age, status and income level, is to achieve a sense of security. People are constantly striving to achieve a state of security by controlling a dynamic and constant flow of choices throughout his life.
W. Blatz defined security as a sense because a person who feels secure perceives himself as free from danger, and security is defined as a subjective feeling. According to Blatz, security involves two components:
• experience of adequacy in a particular situation where a person feels that he is able to cope with the situation,
• a sense of adequacy to meet the future consequences, which finds itself in the ability to anticipate and predict (Blatz, 1966).
Thus, security determines the experience of the present and the future in many ways. W. Blatz equated security to a sense of confidence and effectiveness, despite the fact that a sense of effectiveness largely depends on circumstances and people around us.
In 1939, Professor Edward A. Bott wrote that the word "secure" comes from the Latin word securum, that is "without care", "without anxiety", "without fear", "free from uncertainty" (Salter-Ainsworth, 2010).
Over the next fifty years, emotional security has been excluded from the focus of attention of scientists up until 1994 when this concept appeared in the article by P. Davies and E.M. Cummings titled "Marital conflicts and child adjustment: an
emotional security hypothesis" and published in Psychological Bulletin. The authors showed that the basis of feelings of uncertainty is a negative relationship between a parent and a baby. Also, the reason for the uncertainty may make family conflicts that contribute to the fact that children think that their security is threatened. When people feel that security is lost, they mobilize their resources to restore the state of emotional security. Thus, the emotional security can be interpreted as a person's confidence in possession of internal resources to confront the new threats and dangerous situations (Davies & Cummings, 1994).
The processes of internalization and externalization affect the emotional security (Davies & Cummings, 1998; Davies et al., 2002; Davies & Forman, 2002). John Phelps and his colleagues found that adults who have not experienced a state of emotional security emotionally deprive their children (Phelps & et al., 1998). Michelle Little and Roger Kobak studied the effects of emotional security on self-esteem of children and found that children who experience emotional security conflict with teachers and peers at school less. Insecurity also affects the degree of self-respect of a person (Little & Kobak, 2003) and social competence (Helson & Wink, 1987).
Daniel Goleman, in his book "Emotional Intelligence", states that one of the important factors contributing to the high level of IQ is emotional security (Goleman, 1995). M. Patterson and his colleagues also observed a connection of emotional security and emotional intelligence. When a threat is real, "insecure people" tend to choose negative, inappropriate responses (avoiding danger or taking things to heart), and "secure people" tend to choose a positive, adaptive way of solving problems (Paterson & et al., 2002). If people feel secure, they can see the same situation as an opportunity
for a positive experience. They are able to be motivated not only by a short-term goal, but also by a desire to transform a situation or an event into a long-term positive experience. In this case, they will be able to resolve the current problems, rather than avoid them. Security conditions involve a willingness to accept the consequences of your own behaviour and the ability to rely on someone else.
Emotional security is represented by three components:
1. emotional reactivity, which means that in the presence of potentially dangerous situations a person experiences fear or stress and responds with increased alertness or latent hostility.
2. behavioral regulation, which is a person's ability to regulate his/her interaction with the environment, which manifests itself in minimizing threats and potentially dangerous situations.
3. internal representations that depend on the conscious or unconscious schemes existing in humans towards the potential danger.
The formation of the state of security occurs from the moment of birth. After the dramatic separation, leaving the body of a mother, a child requires a reunion with his/her mother through touching, sucking her breasts. L. Richard and his colleagues noted that each (mammalian) newborn baby has an instinctive and an innate ability to find the mother's breast, attach to it and suck it. A newborn, if placed on a mother's bare stomach immediately after birth, begins to move on his/ her own initiative to breasts for about twenty minutes after the birth and ends this way within fifty minutes. The realized need for emotional security at birth will have a lasting positive effect on neurological, somatic and psychological development of the child (Righard & Alade, 1990; Righard & Franz, 1995).
Immediately after birth, the child falls into a state of "quiet readiness" that lasts about forty minutes, when the baby is looking straight into the eyes and face of his/her mother and can respond to voices (Emde & et al., 1975). This particular period is the most favourable period for the emotional bonding of mother and child: physical activity is suppressed, and all the energy of a child seems to be focused on the vision, hearing and emotional responses (Klaus & et al., 1995). This period is a sensitive period for the establishment of emotional security between mother and child. This very short period determines the child's attachment to his/her mother for the first 6 months of life.
Shortening of the sensitive period immediately after birth, early separation of mother and child seriously reduces the state of emotional security and attachment.
In 1982, J. Trowell compared mothers who gave birth by Caesarean section with women who gave birth by themselves, naturally. Mothers who gave birth by Caesarean section took drugs before, during and after delivery, they were unconscious during delivery, and they needed time to recover from the surgery. In the first month of the child's life, mothers who gave birth by Caesarean section, had the "eye-to-eye" contact with the child much less, were more depressed, more resentful at the father and more concerned about somatic symptoms. A year after the birth of the child, in response to questions: "When do you think your child has become an individual?" and "When do you think your child has recognized you as a mother?" women who gave birth by themselves answered that they saw their children as an individual at birth or soon after. Mothers who gave birth by Caesarean section said that their children became individuals and were able to recognize them after several hours or days (Trowell, 1982).
Also, synchronicity, reciprocity play an important part in this process, when the mother is ready to completely "get lost" in a child during the period of his/her activity. The studies by T. Brazelton and his colleagues, carried out in 1975, showed that the inadequate response by a mother leads to confusion and disruption of the child's emotional security (Brazelton & et al., 1975).
John Bowlby linked security to a state of attachment seeing it as a source of security. It is attachment that ensures the state of security, provides a source of joy (Bowlby, 1980). Care received in the early years of a child's life is fundamental to the future of his/her life. Interaction in the early years affects the state of human security all his life.
One of the basic principles of the theory of security is the fact that infants and young children should develop a secure dependence on parents. Even Mary Dinsmore Salter Ainsworth wrote in 1940 that security of the family in the early stages of child development is security of a dependent type and forms the basis that helps to form new skills and interests in other areas (Salter, 1940).
"Secure attachment" is closely linked to maternal sensitivity. Babies of sensitive mothers tend to feel more secure and demonstrate a desire for knowledge of the world. Breastfeeding is also associated with the emotional security of children.
Mary Ainsworth claimed that the attachment is a source of emotional security. She noted that a sense of security can be tested only in the context of attachment. M. Ainsworth, together with S. Bell, developed an experimental procedure known as a "strange situation". She watched the child's behaviour in a series of experiments consisting of seven 3-minute episodes. The experiment took place in a small room, where from one side there was a glass partition, so she could secretly observe the baby's behaviour. Infants were selected between the ages of 12 to 18 months. The sample
group consisted of 100 American middle-class families. The child's behaviour was measured and observed in situations of separation, appearance of a stranger, returning of the mother and the "others" situation, in which the child explores the surrounding world (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970).
M. Ainsworth identified three basic styles of attachment:
1. Secure style;
2. Avoidant insecure style;
3. Ambivalent insecure style (ambivalence).
She concluded that these attachment styles are
the result of the reflection of the early experience of interaction with mother. M. Ainsworth and S. Bell suggested that the children's behaviour in different situations is determined by the behaviour, primarily, of his mother. As expected, the babies examined the playroom and toys more vigorously in the presence of their mothers than after a stranger entered or while mothers were absent (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970).
The secure attachment style has been identified in the majority of the studied "mother-child" couples. Children use mother as a "secure base" to explore the environment and need her in difficult times (Main & Cassidy, 1988). Such babies are easy to calm down when upset, sensitive to signals of a mother and educator, and adequately respond to them. Secure children are more deeply immersed in a game, show greater universality in knowledge than children with insecure attachment. In stressful situations secure children are capable of flexible solutions and are willing to offer and accept help when it is needed.
Parents of these children are actively engaged and play with them, and are here for them when they are confused or scared.
Children of the avoidant insecure style of attachment are little focused on the object of their attachment (Behrens & et al., 2007). They do not seek a contact with their mother when distressed.
Table 1. Styles of attachment in different situations
Situation Secure style of attachment Ambivalent insecure style Avoidant insecure style
Separation Upset about mother leaving them Show signs of severe stress Do not show signs of stress, when mothers leave them
Stranger Avoid stranger when alone, but are friendly in the presence of mothers Avoid stranger, afraid of stranger Play well with stranger
Mother's return Show positive emotions, happy Resists contact with mother, may even push her away Show little interest in her returning
Others Use mother as a "secure base" for exploring the environment Cry, do not aspire to explore the environment Mother and stranger can calm the child equally well
A cause of the avoidant attachment style is the emotional rejection by a mother (Ainsworth, 1979). Children avoid the object of attachment during emotional stress (Stevenson-Hinde & Verschueren, 2002). S. Larose and A. Bernier noted that avoidant children perceive themselves unworthy of attention, which is caused by the rejecting behaviour of the primary caregivers (Larose & Bernier, 2001).
The ambivalent insecure style of attachment is characterized by the fact that children adopt a dual style of behaviour in relation to the object of attachment. The child will now demonstrate the clingy and dependent behaviour, and then reject the object of attachment. They are difficult to comfort and calm when they are upset. They cry when a mother leaves, and when she returns, they refuse to contact by kicking and pushing her away. The child of this type does not experience the state of security from the attachment to mother. Ambivalent children have a negative self-esteem exaggerating their emotional reactions as a way to draw the attention (Kobak & et al., 1993).
The insecure attachment styles are closely linked to the risk of social and emotional problems in behaviour. According to M. Van Ijzendoorn and M. Bakermans-Kranenburg, there is evidence
that insecure attachment is a risk factor for later development of psychopathology (Van Ijzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2003).
Babies, when they begin to crawl and walk, use their mother as a support to explore the environment. When the environment does not seem dangerous, the children move away from the mother. Thus, the concept of secure base was formed.
The experiments, carried out by G.F. Harlow and his colleagues at the University of Wisconsin using the Macacus rhesus monkeys, showed that young animals turned to their mothers in situations of a sudden fright. When an unfamiliar object (a bear moving around and beating drums) was put in front of them, they ran away in terror and hid somewhere in the corner. However, if there was a replacing cloth mother near them, they quickly ran away and snuggled up to it. There they slowly calmed down, started to turn around for the unknown, terrifying subject, then even approached it and began to manipulate and explore it. The baby monkeys without a mother froze in the corner, while the babies with the "mother" were capable to go on an adventurous expedition to explore the world. Since monkeys have grown up, and the cloth mother was not that heavy, in such cases, they often took her with
them. In the same way they behaved when put the "mother" into a transparent box made of plastic (Harlow, 1958).
For one-year-olds the main manifestation of secure development is the attachment and the cognitive activity from a "secure base". For two-year-olds - an indicator of secure development is self-assertion and the beginning of autonomy. Three-year-olds, in the presence of emotional security, show positive self-esteem, such emotions as pride, shame, rudiments of tolerance and the growth of language competence. For 4-year-olds - it is gender identity and building of relationships with peers; 5-year-olds are concerned about moral issues and social rules; 6-year-olds have to adapt to school activities (Grossmann & et al., 1999).
At preschool age a child understands that his/ her parents may feel differently, their plans may be different from his/her own. The child becomes a partner with his/her parents in planning of their joint attachment. Older children derive a sense of security from the assurance that they can count on the people close to them, even in case they are not available. This is what scientists call "confidence in security" (Goldberg & et al., 1999). Emotionally secure preschoolers develop an understanding of the other, their emotions, which leads to empathy (Harris, 1994). They are able to predict another person's plans, intentions and motives.
Cognitive processes make the basis of security. From infancy people are inherently interested in the changes that are happening in the world around them, while often the changes are the result of their own activities. The desire for change leads to a research activity, and, therefore, to learning and acquiring of skills and knowledge. Bowlby believed that the partnership begins to develop as early as in the fourth year of a child's life, when the newly acquired cognitive abilities enable the child to
agree with his/her parents on the achievement of common, mutually agreed plans (Bowlby, 1980).
The ability to understand his/her own and others' feelings, desires, beliefs, regrets, values and objectives develops from the early age directly from the affective experience of a child. Conversely, a child would not develop this potential, if his/her parents did not make appropriate adjustments.
Children with the state of security are described as adaptable, able to trust and understand. They use their social skills and knowledge for the benefit of collaborative relationships, for example, through cooperation (Suess & et al., 1992). At school, secure children have good relationships with peers (Scheider & et al., 2001), they demonstrate a less aggressive behaviour toward friends (Zimmerman & et al.,
2001), show greater empathy for a distressful situation of a stranger (Van der Mark & et al.,
2002).
R.P. Fearon and colleagues conducted a study on a sample group of 6,000 children with various behavioural problems. Scientists have found that the experience of interaction in the early years affects girls more: the lack of a sense of security in childhood contributes to the manifestation of indirect aggression in social relationships and depressive events many years later (Fearon et al., 2010).
A child in a state of emotional security can be characterized as follows (Mikulincer & Florian, 1998):
• Search activity;
• High degree of tolerance for unpredictability, disorder and ambiguity;
• Reluctance to approve rigid beliefs;
• Desire for integration of new facts, openness to new opportunities and new information;
• Positive self-esteem;
• Optimistic attitude towards life and basic trust in the world;
• Emotional when expressing a state of sadness and joy;
•Stress resistance.
Emotional security is formed in infancy as attachment to parents, and is introduced into adulthood. Thus, anxious people are significantly less likely to build a harmonious relationship than the emotionally secure people (Kobak & Hazan, 1991). Three major longitudinal studies conducted by the American psychologists Claire Hamilton, Mary Main, Everett Waters (Hamilton, 1994, 2000; Main, 1997; Waters et al., 2000) showed that in 68-75% of cases there is a dependence between a realized need for emotional security in infancy and the human behaviour in adulthood, which can be seen in many areas of life:
(1) intimate relationships (Sroufe, 1983;. Sroufe et al., 1990);
(2) working activity (Hazan & Shaver, 1990);
(3) sexual and marital relationships (Levy & Davis, 1988);
(4) relationships with friends;
(5) hobbies, interests;
(6) philosophy of life.
Mature people also depend on security. For example, W. Blatz noted that no one can be secure solely on the basis of independence. Security in adulthood is largely determined by the principle of mutual exchange, one of the basic laws of the human society. It is a relationship, in which each partner, based on their knowledge and skills can ensure security of others. The relationship is characterized by a mature dependant security in the presence of independent security of each partner.
Security of a person can be considered as the confidence to cope with problems on the basis of his/her skills and knowledge that there are people who will help him/her when needed
and will provide comfort and protection (parents, husband/wife, etc.) when there is a "safety bag" in case of a fall.
The presence/absence of security in adulthood appears most clearly in stressful situations. In a situation of danger a grown man being afraid of losing the object of attachment will protest and seek closeness with significant others to maintain his confidence.
Of course, security in interpersonal relationships between adult is maintained differently than between children. And only then, when the adult feels severe anxiety, experiences illness, injury, emotional turmoil, when the fear of loss becomes real, he/she begins to look for closeness with the same intensity as little children do, and likewise, show protest before separation. For example, romantic love and marriage themselves are the process of connection, the realization of needs for security.
One of the forms of realization of the need for security is dependence. There are numerous forms of emotional dependence: dependence on food, drugs, alcohol; dependence on spending, gambling or TV; dependence on money; dependence on gaining someone's love, approval or attention; sex addiction, etc. And in this case, a sense of security depends on love, attention and approval of others.
Klaus Grossmann and his colleagues define security as a perfect balance between attachment and desire for knowledge, which is achieved through openness. The basis of an emotionally secure relationship is trust. When there is no emotional security, the partners tend to search for possible hidden meanings and potential threats in words and behaviour of each other (Grossmann & et al., 1999).
Emotional security is closely linked with a sense of community, the psychological identification with the community (commonality of values, a sense of belonging, a sense of
belonging to the events in the community, a sense of responsibility to the community, etc.). In 1974, a psychologist Seymour Sarason introduced the concept of "psychological sense of community", which is one of the bases for self-determination (Sarason, 1974). David McMillan and David Chavis noted that the sense of community presupposes the existence of a sense of belonging and emotional security (McMillan & Chavis, 1986).
D. McMillan and D. Chavis suggest that a sense of community is composed of four elements: the first component of the sense of community is membership, i.e. a sense of belonging and emotional security. This sense involves the recognition of certain boundaries that help to distinguish "yours" from "others". A person enters a group, has a place there: "This is my group" and "I am a part of the group". He is willing to sacrifice for the group. The second component is the impact, i.e. the ability to feel free, while experiencing a feeling of unity with the community and the commitment to its values and interests. The third component is integratedness and realizability of the personal desires of a person, i.e. a sense of unity with other people based on the values corresponding to the interests of both the community and the individual. This is due to the positive support of human behaviour, status, evaluation of his success or abilities. The fourth component is a shared emotional connection, i.e. a sense of common destiny, including the extent and nature of interaction between members of the community (McMillan & Chavis, 1986).
"Focusing on informal ties provides an opportunity to build more flexible strategies and to feel safe" (Zinchenko & Perelygina, 2013).
Emotional security is a sense of acceptance and confidence that you are in the right place surrounded by the right people. If a person feels that he had a hand in the creation of the
community, he will inevitably identify himself with that community.
The general system of symbols is also one of the factors contributing to the formation of emotional security. Sports teams wearing the same uniform, military symbols, badges, t-shirts, stickers... All these things are a symbol of belonging to a particular community. They serve to unite people in the community, thereby providing the community with emotional security. According to Robert Nisbet and Robert Perrin "a symbol in the social world is like a cell of the body, like an atom in a chemical element... A symbol is the beginning of the social world" (Nisbet & Perrin, 1977). The groups deliberately use these social conventions (e.g. ceremonies, language, clothing) to create social distance between members and non-members (McMillan, 1976). G. Bernard noted that black leaders used symbols to unify the black population and challenge the white population. For example, Black Power - a slogan of the Negro movement in the United States that emerged in 1966 to support the requirements of self-determination of the black population of the country and provide African-Americans with equal civil rights as whites. This political slogan is used by African-Americans in the United States and emphasizes racial pride (Bernard, 1973).
At the national level, national holidays, flags, language that play an integrating role provide emotional security for the citizens of the country. On a larger scale it is the main archetypes that unite all of humanity (Jung, 1912).
Emotional security affects the attitude toward death as well. People who are in a state of emotional security, as a rule, are less afraid of death than those who do not feel safe. Mario Mikulincer and Victor Florian argue that insecurity or lack of confidence in their involvement in the world has a strong impact
not only on the way people cope with life's problems, but also on the emotional state at the thought of death: they are terrified of the thought of their own death. Fear of death is expressed in the fear of the unknown. Their fear of death is self-cantered, and death, in their opinion, contributes to further separation from significant others, loss of self-identity (Mikulincer & Florian, 1998).
In general, emotionally secure people have a positive attitude towards life, which helps them overcome the fear of death through the development of a sense of "symbolic immortality", a sense of continuity. Robert Lifton suggests that this ratio may be achieved through generations of continuity, creative contributions to culture and society, spiritual and religious achievements, the feeling that you are a part of the Universe. He suggested that a positive and secure attachment to the world is a fundamental prerequisite for the development of a sense of symbolic immortality (Lifton, 1979).
People who have no emotional security do not have a positive relationship with the world suppressing their fear of death, and do not develop a sense of symbolic immortality (Mikulincer & Florian, 1998).
Methodology
A purpose of the empirical research was to investigate the relation of emotional security/ insecurity and dependence/independence and such psychological characteristics as pessimism-optimism, indifference-sympathy; dependence-autonomy; anxiety-calmness and aggression-tolerance.
Complexity of the study of emotional security is related to several factors. Firstly, today there are no methods to study this phenomenon in psychological science. Secondly, people with or without emotional security do not have significant social localization, certain social
markers, so when evaluating emotional security we have to rely on the subjective assessments of the respondents.
1. To study emotional security we drew up a questionnaire, which was based on the concept of W. Blatz. The subjects had to assess a state of their own security/insecurity and dependence/ independence on a five-grade scale (from +2 to -2) in the following areas of life (family: parents, husband/wife; work: occupation, colleagues, career; education: professional training, self-development; hobby/leisure activities: hobbies, interests, travelling; friends), as well as with respect to the temporal perspective (past, present, future).
2. The modified scale of emotional stability (M. Chaturvedi and P. Chander).
We identified bipolar scales as significant characteristics of emotional stability. These scales have the following independent features:
• Pessimism-optimism (For example: In uncertain situations you usually believe that everything will be fine);
• Indifference-sympathy (For example: You normally take to heart the problems of your friends);
• Dependence-autonomy (For example: You often prefer to be alone);
• Anxiety-calmness (For example: You are often extremely cold-blooded and confident);
• Aggression-tolerance (For example: Beggars and vagrants are to blame for their problems).
The subjects evaluated the extent of their agreement with statements on a five-grade scale ("always", "often", "sometimes", "rarely" and "never").
Characteristics of selection
The study involved 242 people. The selections were equalized by age and level of
education. All participants are the students of universities of Yekaterinburg.
Data processing
For data processing and statistical analysis we used methods of descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, factor analysis (principal components method with Varimax rotation and Kaiser Normalization).
Results
The entire selection was differentiated on the basis of two criteria: a state of security/insecurity and dependence/independence. Correlating between the two concepts of security and dependence forms a space obtained respectively by vertical and horizontal components, where the vertical represents a degree of dependence, and the horizontal - a degree of security. The intersection of these axes forms four quadrants.
We differentiated each of the two basic criteria into two polar values -minimum and maximum, and then, through a combination of these values we built a 2*2 matrix with a volume of 4 "cells". Thereafter, all the examined persons were attributed to one of the four subgroups depending on the "pattern" of characteristics they possessed. Thus, we allocated 4 subgroups of respondents:
1st Subgroup - secure-independent (19.6% of respondents);
2nd Subgroup - secure-sensitive (51.6%);
3rd Subgroup - insecure-dependent (14.8%);
4th Subgroup - insecure-independent (13.6%).
Checking of correlations between the scales of the questionnaire was carried out using a Spearman's correlation coefficient.
In the first subgroup we observe a significant (at p<0.01) positive correlation between the sense of security in the present and security in family with a sexual partner and the sense of security
in the future. Significant correlations were not found in the second and the third subgroups. In the fourth subgroup negative correlation was observed between the sense of security in the present and the sense of security with a sexual partner.
Data obtained on the scale of emotional stability were subjected to the factor analysis procedure to determine conceptual, substantial connections that unite them in separate blocks in four subgroups.
As a result of the factor-analytical processing of the results obtained in the 1st subgroup, we allocated 7 significant factors, which account for 99% of the total variance.
The first factor (contribution to the total variance - 27.39%) involved the following statements: "The hope for something good" .98, "Waiting on something particularly good in future" .94, "The belief that everything happens for the better" .88, "Finding positive moments in everything" .72, "Belief in the best in uncertain situations" .61. The content of the first factor makes it possible to interpret it as "Optimism".
The second factor is bipolar (19.58%). The positive pole of this factor involved the following statements: "In a difficult situation I rely only on myself" .94, "Taking to heart the problems of friends" .75, "Readiness to accept a person of another nationality as a member of the family" .60. The negative pole of the second factor involved the following statements: "Irritation with a person who thinks differently" .91 "Fear of insurmountable difficulties" .82. The content of the second factor allows us to call it as "Tolerance".
The third factor "Anxiety" (16.72%) is represented by the negative pole, which included the following statements: "Willingness to listen to other points of view" .97, "Feeling of prosperity, confidence, and ease" .86.
The fourth factor is bipolar (12.99%). The positive pole of this factor is represented by the following statements: "The belief that the beggars and tramps are to blame for their problems" .84, "The importance of what people think about the others" 54. The negative pole is represented by the following statements: "The confidence and freedom from anxiety" .94, "Exceptional composure and confidence" .76. Content of the factor allows us to interpret it as "Conformity".
The fifth factor is bipolar (11.48%). Positive pole: "Preference to be alone" .68, "A sense of concern, stiffness, disquietude" .62, "Upset seeing animal suffer" 62. Negative pole: "Vanity around you annoys you" .98. Content of features included in this factor allows us to interpret it as "Autonomy".
The sixth factor is bipolar (6.97%); it was named "Empathy" and represented by statements: "I get nervous when someone close gets nervous" .70, "Upset seeing a stranger who feels lonely among other people" .58. Negative pole: "Hope for supernatural powers, such as God or destiny, for a sense of security" .58.
The seventh factor "Aggression" (4.82%) includes statements: "There is only one correct point of view in a dispute" .95.
As a result of the factor-analytical processing of the results obtained in the second subgroup the group of respondents got 9 important factors. For further analysis, the first four factors are the most interesting.
The first factor "Optimism" is bipolar (contribution to the total variance - 23.23%). The positive pole of this factor involved the following statements: "The belief in the best in uncertain situations" .89, "Search for positive things in everything" .78, "Confidence and freedom from anxiety" .69, "Readiness to listen to other points of view" .50. The negative pole of the first factor involved the following statements: "Irritation with a person who thinks differently"
.69, "Hope for supernatural powers, such as God or destiny, for a sense of security" .63, "Fear of insurmountable difficulties" .52, "Upset when seeing a stranger who feels lonely among other people" .51.
The second factor is bipolar (13.78%). The positive pole of this factor is represented by: "Importance of what people think about the others" .55. The negative pole of the second factor is represented by the statements: "Exceptional composure and confidence" .67, "Willingness to accept a person of another nationality as a family member" .64. The content of the second factor allows us to call it "Anxiety".
The third factor "Aggression" is bipolar (9.82%). The positive pole of the factor involved the following statements: "There is only one correct point of view in a dispute" .61, "Feeling of prosperity, confidence, ease" .55. The negative pole of the third factor involved the following statements: "A sense of concern, stiffness, and disquietude" .70, "I get nervous when someone close to me gets nervous" .54.
The fourth factor (9.22%). The positive pole of this factor involved the following statements: "Vanity is annoying" .55. The content of this factor allows us to interpret it as "Nervousness".
As a result of the factor-analytical processing of the results obtained in the third subgroup the group (insecure-dependent) was given 5 significant factors.
The first factor (36.81°%) consists of the following statements: "Confidence and freedom from anxiety" .98, "Faith in the best in uncertain situations" .94, "Upset when someone abuse someone" .94, "Feeling of prosperity, confidence, ease" .91, "Readiness to accept a person of another nationality as a member of the family" .81, "Taking to heart the problems of friends" .65. The content of the first factor makes it possible to interpret it as "Tolerance".
The second factor (28.37%) consists of the following statements: "Upset seeing animals suffer" .99, "Waiting something particularly good in the future" .99, "Vanity around you is annoying" .81. The content of the second factor allows us to interpret it as "Sensitivity".
The third factor "Fatalism" (17.29%) consists of the following statements: "Hope for supernatural powers, such as God or destiny" .94, "Readiness to listen to other points of view" .84, "Belief that the beggars and tramps are to blame for their problems" .82, "Belief that everything that happens is for the better" .80, "Preference to be alone" .77.
The fourth factor "Withdrawal" is bipolar (12.22%). The positive pole of this factor involved the following statements: "Fear of the intractable difficulties" .99, "Irritation with a person who thinks differently" .84, "In a difficult situation I rely only on myself" .68, "Exceptional composure and confidence" .63. The negative pole of this factor involved the following statement: "Upset when seeing a stranger who feels lonely among other people" .88.
The fifth factor (5.28%) involved the following statements: "Hope for something good" .98, "A sense of concern, stiffness, disquietude" .86, "Search for positive things in everything" .66, "There is only one correct point of view in a dispute" .66. The content of this factor allows us to call it "Anxiety".
As a result of the factor-analytical processing of results obtained in the fourth subgroup of respondents (insecure-independent) 4 significant factors were allocated.
The first factor is bipolar (43.22%). The positive pole is represented by the following statements: "The fuss around you is annoying" .96, "Irritation with a person who thinks differently" .87, "I get nervous when someone close to me gets nervous" .86, "Feeling of concern, stiffness, disquietude" .83, "Importance of what people
think about the others" .82. The negative pole of the first factor involved the following statements: "Upset seeing animals suffer" .74, "In a difficult situation I rely only on myself" .72, "Willingness to listen to other points of view" .69. The content of this factor allows us to interpret it as "Autonomy".
The second factor is bipolar (30.59%). The positive pole of this factor involved the following statements: "Confidence and freedom from anxiety" .86, "Feeling of prosperity, confidence, ease" .82, "Search for positive things in everything" .81, "Hope for supernatural powers, such as God or destiny, for a sense of security" .75, "Faith in the best in uncertain situations" .71, "Waiting on something particularly good in the future" .69. The negative pole of this factor involved the following statements: "Fear of insurmountable difficulties" .91, "Willingness to accept a person of another nationality as a family member" .85. The content of the factor allows us to interpret it as "Calmness".
The third factor "Soft-heartedness" is bipolar (15.73%). The positive pole of this factor involved the following statements: "Taking to heart the problems of friends" .90, "Upset when someone abuses someone" .83, "Preference to be alone" .68. The negative pole of this factor involved the following statement: "The hope for something good" .94, "There is only one correct point of view in a dispute" .78.
The fourth factor is bipolar (7.83%). The positive pole of this factor involved the following statements: "Exceptional composure and confidence" .98, "Belief that the beggars and tramps are to blame for their problems" .78. The negative pole of this factor involved the following statements: "Upset when seeing a stranger who feels lonely among other people" .74. The content of the factor allows us to interpret it as "Indifference".
Analysis of results
Security and dependence have their purpose led by aspirations of a person, which in turn lead to concerted or contradictory actions. Security of all the things around us begins with the creation of emotional security in ourselves. Thus, a conflict or harmony between emotional security and dependence ultimately determine the strategy of human behaviour.
Emotional security generalized in a person's worldview is the cause of his positive attitude to the surrounding objects outside the situational context. Security largely determines social relations, provides the potential for the subject and certain freedoms.
First of all, we should pay attention to the most powerful first factor "Optimism" revealed in the respondents who feel secure. According to I.A. Dzhidaryan, "the main thing that distinguishes a happy person from an unhappy one in assessments and perceptions of other people is a sense of optimism and determination and self-confidence" (Dzhidaryan, 2000). In general, an optimistic attitude towards life is closely linked to the basic trust in the world.
Emotionally secure and independent respondents (1st Subgroup) connect their security primarily with loved ones. They are confident in themselves, in their families and in the future. They rely on significant Others, which is an important condition for a sense of security. We should note the positive assessment of their own skills and abilities as sufficient to achieve significant goals and needs. They are less guided by group norms and standards. We can assume that the representatives of this group are able to freely build interpersonal relationships. The close correlation of the image "I" with a family gives a person a sense of independence from the outside world, confidence in the future.
Most subjects (51.6%) turned out to be in the 2nd subgroup: they feel insecure and emotionally
dependent. Instability of the current life creates a sense of fragility and instability, and in order to overcome that and to maintain a sense of security they need to feel belonging and dependence on something/someone (power, money, work, love). High levels of anxiety. Fear of loss. The need for adaptability and predictability of the world, reduce of uncertainty. Behind external civility they may be hiding a repressed need to be aggressive in social relations. They probably need external restrictions providing a sense of security.
The third and the fourth subgroups are characterized by a lack of a sense of security and safety, which is reflected in emotional reactivity, behavioural regulation and internal representations. Interpretation of the future as a source of discomfort.
In the third subgroup people are sensitive, they go with a flow. Afraid to take any action because of doubts about their possibilities and abilities to make them successful, afraid of failure. The desire to maintain and improve the well-being of the people around them. The desire to please people and to rely on others. Representatives of this subgroup always have something to fear (get sick, grow old, financial collapse, robbers, dishonest people, etc.), which may indicate the extreme sensitivity to environmental influences, with a tendency to strengthen their position at the expense of attachment and protection from the other person. The need for affiliation is in creating warm, trusting, emotionally meaningful relationships with other people. People seek to "protect themselves" from the actual or apparent "negative conditions of existence" (to maintain stability of their internal emotional state through the active pursuit of security) and search for intimacy with significant others to maintain their confidence. Personal anxiety causes the lack of a sense of basic security, which expands the range of individually significant stressors and reduces the resistance to them. Hence, each everyday
situation becomes stressful, which prevents its effective overcoming.
The fourth subgroup has no sense of security and no clearly defined object of affection. There is some detachment from life, people. Autonomous. The desire for privacy, independence and self-sufficiency. This position can be defined as "an escape from security", readiness to "endure" information uncertainty, the desire to permanently "test oneself", which turns into risky actions and the pursuit of danger.
Conclusion
Depending on the state of security/insecurity and dependence/independence we revealed four groups of subjects that are characterized by the following features (see Fig. 1):
• 1st Subgroup (secure-independent) -optimism and tolerance;
• 2nd Subgroup (secure-dependent) -optimism and anxiety;
• 3rd Subgroup (insecure-dependent) -tolerance and anxiety;
• 4th Subgroup (insecure-independent) -autonomy and calmness.
Having a sense of security indicates person's internal resources to confront new threats and dangerous situations. An important condition for security is the ability to rely on significant others (family, sexual partners, etc.). Emotionally secure people have a positive attitude towards life; they are dependent on a small group of significant people.
4 subgroup
(insecurity-independence)
autonomy calmness
Insecurity
3r subgroup
(insecurity-dependence)
tolerance ' anxiety
Independence
1s subgroup
(security-independence)
optimism tolerance
Security
2nd subgroup
(security-dependence)
optimism anxiety
Dependence
Fig. 1. Main features of the subjects according to the criteria of security/insecurity and dependence/ independence
- 1829 -
The sense of security affects the interpretation of the future; in particular, in respondents who do not experience a state of emotional security, the future is a source of discomfort. "When people feel secure and capable of predicting events correctly, they make choices that are more open and challenge their construct systems to expand, even at the risk to make a mistake, but then there
will be a period during which they will make choices that reduce the chances to make mistakes" (Sechrest, 1963).
Thus, the resulting picture shows that emotional security causes multi-ordinal experiences; it is characterized by a different set of states and reflects a contradictory set of meanings.
References
1. Ainsworth M.D.S. (1979). Attachment as Related to Mother-lnfant Interaction. In: Advances in the Study of Behavior? Rosenblatt J.S., Hinde R.A., Beer C. and Busnel M., editors. NY: Academic Press, 9, 1-51.
2. Ainsworth M.D.S., Bell S.M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the behaviour of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child Development, 41, 49-67.
3. Behrens K.Y., Main M., Hesse E. (2007). Mothers' Attachment Status as Determined by the Adult Attachment Interview Predicts Their 6-Year-Olds' Reunion Responses: A Study Conducted in Japan. Developmental Psychology. 43, 1553-1567.
4. Bernard J.S. (1973). The sociology of community. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
5. Blatz W.E. (1966). Human security: Some reflections. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
6. Bowlby J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Volume 3. Loss, New York: Basic Books, 40.
7. Brazelton T.B., Tronick E. Adamson L., Als H., Wise S. (1975). Early mother-infant reciprocity. CIBA Foundation Symposium, 33, Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 137-154.
8. Davies P., Cummings E.M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin. 116, 387-411.
9. Davies P.T., Forman E.M. (2002). Children's patterns of preserving emotional security in the interparental subsystem. Child Development. 73, 1880-1903.
10. Davies P.T., Cummings M.E. (1998). Exploring children's emotional security as a mediator of the link between marital relationships and child adjustment. Child Development, 69, 124-139.
11. Davies P.T., Harold G.T., Goeke-Morey M.C., Cummings E.M. (2002). Child emotional security and interparental conflict. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. 67, 27-62.
12. Dzhidaryan I.A. (2000). Happiness in representations of everyday consciousness. Psychological Journal, 21, 2, 48.
13. Emde R.N., Swedburg J. Suzuki B. (1975). Human wakefulness and biological rhythms after birth. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 780-783.
14. Fearon R.P., Bakermans-Kranenburg M.J., van Ibzendoorn M.H., Lapsley A-M, Roisman G.I. (2010) The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children's externalizing behavior: a meta-analytic study. Child Development. 81(2), 435-456.
15. Goldberg S., Grusec J., Jenkins J.M. (1999). Confidence in protection: Arguments for a narrow definition of attachment. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 475-483.
- 1830 -
16. Goleman D. (1995). Inteligencia Emocional (Emotional Intelligence). Barcelona, Spain. Editorial Kairos.
17. Grossmann K.E., Grossmann K., Zimmermann P. (1999). A Wider View of Attachment and Exploration: Stability and Change During the Years of Immaturity. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. New York: Guilford Press, 768.
18. Hamilton C. (2000). Continuity and discontinuity of attachment from infancy through adolescence. Child Development, 71, 690-694.
19. Harlow H.F. (1958). The Nature of Love. American Psychologist, 13, 673-685.
20. Harris P.L. (1994). The child's understanding of emotion: Developmental change and the family environment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 3-28.
21. Hazan C., Shaver P.R. (1990). Love and work: An attachment theoretical perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 270-280.
22. Helson R., Wink P. (1987). Two conceptions of maturity examined in the findings of a longitudinal study. Personality processes and individual differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 53, 531-541.
23. Howes C., Matheson C.C., Hamilton C.E. (1994). Maternal, Teacher, and Child Care History Correlates of Children's Relationships with Peers. Child Development, 65, 1, 264-273.
24. Jung C.G. (1912). The psychology of the unconscious. Leipzig, Germany: Franz Deutiche.
25. Klaus M.H., Kennell J.H., Klaus P.H. (1995). Bonding: Building the Foundations of Secure Attachment and Independence. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
26. Kobak R. R., Hazan, C. (1991). Parents and Spouses: Attachment Strategies and Marital Functioning, University of Delaware, Newark.
27. Kobak R.R., Cole H.E., Ferenz-Gillies R., Flemming W.S., Gamble W. (1993). Attachment and emotional regulation during mother-teen problem-solving. A control theory analysis. Child Development, 64, 231-245.
28. Larose S., Bernier A. (2001). Social support processes: Mediators of attachment state of mind and adjustment in later late adolescence. Attachment and Human Development, 3, 96-120.
29. Levy M.B., Davis K.E. (1988). Lovestyles and attachment styles compared: Their relations to each other and to various relationship characteristics. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5, 439-471.
30. Lifton R.J. (1979). The Broken Connection: On Death and the Continuity of Life. American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
31. Little M., Kobak R. (2003). Emotional security with teachers and children's stress reactivity: A comparison of special-education and regular-education classrooms. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 32, 127-138.
32. Main M. (1997). Strange Situation Research and the Adult Attachment Interview. Panel II: Attachment: Theory, Research, and Application. Annual Meeting of the American Psychoanalytic Association, December 20, New York.
33. Main M., Cassidy J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, 415-426.
- 1831 -
34. McMillan D.W. (1976). Sense of community: an attempt at a definition. George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, TN: unpublished manuscript.
35. McMillan D.W., Chavis D.M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23.
36. Mikulincer M., Florian V. (1998). The relationship between adult attachment styles and emotional and cognitive reactions to stressful events. In Simpson, J., Rholes, S. (eds.,) Attachment theory and close relationships. New York: Guilford, 143-165.
37. Nisbet R., Perrin R.G. (1977). The Social Bond. New York: Knopf, 47.
38. Paterson M., Green J.M., Basson C., Ross F. (2002) Probability of assertive behavior, interpersonal anxiety and self-efficacy of South African registered dietitians. Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietetics, 15, 9-17.
39. Phelps J.L., Belsky J., Crnic K. (1998). Earned security, daily stress, and parenting: A comparison of five alternative models. Development & Psychopathology. 10, 21-38.
40. Righard L., Alade M.O. (1990). Effect of delivery room routines on success of first breastfeed. Lancet. 336(8723), 1105-1107.
41. Righard L., Franz K. (1995). Delivery Self Attachment (Video). Sunland, CA: Geddes Productions.
42. Salter M.D. (1940). An evaluation of adjustment based on the concept of security. University of Toronto Studies, Child Development Series, No. 18. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
43. Salter-Ainsworth M.D. (2010). Security and Attachment. In: The Secure Child: Timeless Lessons in Parenting and Childhood Education. Ed. by Richard Volpe. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 46.
44. Sarason S.B. (1974). The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 157.
45. Scheider B.H., Atkinson L., Tardif C. (2001). Child-parent attachment and children's peer relations: A quantitative review. Developmental Psychology. 37, 86-100.
46. Sechrest L. (1963). The psychology of personal constructs: George Kelly. In J.M.Wepman and R.W. Heine (Eds.), Concepts of personality. Chicago: Aldine.
47. Sroufe L.A. (1983) Infant-care-giver attachment and patterns of adaptation in preschool. The roots of maladaptation and competence. In M Perlmutter (Ed), Development and policy concerning children with special needs. Minnesota symposia on child psychology. Hillsdale, NJ Erlbaum. 16, 41-79.
48. Sroufe L.A., Egeland B., Kreutzer T. (1990). The fate of early experience following developmental change Longitudinal approaches to individual adaptation in childhood Child Development, 61, 1363-1373.
49. Stevenson-Hinde J., Verschueren K. (2002). Attachment in childhood. In P. Smith & C. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of childhood social development. Oxford: Blackwell, 182-204.
50. Suess G.J., Grossmann K.E., Sroufe L.A. (1992). Effects of infant attachment to mother and father on quality of adaptation in preschool: From dyadic to individual organization of self. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 15, 43-66.
51. Trowell J. (1982). Effects of obstetric management on the mother/child relationship. In C. M. Parkes & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior, 79-94. New York: Basic Books.
- 1832 -
52. Van der Mark I.L., van Ibzendoorn M.H., Bakermans-Kranenburg M.J. (2002). Development of empathy in girls during the second year of life: Associations with parenting, attachment, and temperament. Social Development, 11, 451-468.
53. Van Ijzendoorn M, Bakermans-Kranenburg M. (2003). Attachment disorders and disorganized attachment: Similar and different Attachment & Human Development, 5, 3, 313-320.
54. Waters E., Hamilton C.E., Weinfield N.S. (2000). The Stability of Attachment Security from Infancy to Adolescence and Early Adulthood: General Introduction. Child Development, 71, 3, 678683.
55. Zimmerman P., Maier M.A., Winter M., Grossman K.E. (2001). Attachment and adolescents' emotion regulation during a joint problem-solving task with a friend. International Journal of Behavioural Development. 25, 331-343.
56. Zinchenko Y.P., E.B. Perelygina (2013). A Secure City: Social-psychological Aspects. Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences, 86, 108.
Эмоциональная безопасность личности
О.Ю. Зотова
Гуманитарный университет Россия, 620144, Екатеринбург, ул. Сурикова, 24а, оф. 215
Анализируются психологические концепции, раскрываются сущность, условия и структура эмоциональной безопасности. Показана роль эмоциональной безопасности в онтогенезе. Обсуждается связь эмоциональной безопасности и привязанности. Представлены результаты исследования, целью которого являлось изучение связи эмоциональной безопасности/небезопасности и зависимости/независимости и таких психологических характеристик, как пессимизм-оптимизм, безразличие-сочувствие; зависимость-автономия; тревожность-спокойствие и агрессия-толерантность. В зависимости от состояния безопасности/небезопасности и зависимости/независимости было выявлено четыре группы испытуемых, которые характеризуются следующими чертами: безопасные-независимые - оптимизм и толерантность; безопасные-зависимые -оптимизм и тревожность; небезопасные-зависимые - толерантность и тревожность и небезопасные-независимые - автономия и спокойствие. Доказано, что наличие чувства безопасности свидетельствует об обладании человеком внутренними ресурсами для противостояния новым угрозам и опасным ситуациям. Чувство безопасности влияет на интерпретацию будущего и отношения к жизни.
Ключевые слова: эмоциональная безопасность, привязанность, чувство безопасности, зависимость, личность.
Научная специальность: 09.00.00 - философские науки.
