Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in tertiary education: the case of university lecturers in Taiwan Текст научной статьи по специальности «Экономика и бизнес»

Organizational Psychology, 2024, Vol. 14, No. 1, P. 30-54. DOI: 10.17323/2312-5942-2024-14-1-30-54

ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

www.orgpsyjournal.hse.ru

Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in tertiary education: the case of university lecturers in Taiwan

Lee-Anne C. JOHENNESSE

ORCID: 0000-0001-9372-3627

Providence University, Taichung, Taiwan

Abstract. Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction are important factors in today's workplace. Academic study and practical integration efforts aim to investigate these factors. Purpose. The primary aim of this study is to examine the extent of emotional intelligence and job satisfaction among tertiary educators in Taiwanese universities. Additionally, the secondary aim involves evaluating the correlation between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. Study design. Data was collected using a survey approach and two self-administered questionnaires, namely TEIQue-SF and JSS. The survey revealed that Taiwanese university professors possess a significant level of emotional intelligence. Findings. The findings indicate that these individuals possess a level of job satisfaction that is higher than the average. Furthermore, the findings also suggest that emotionality does not affect the characteristics of work, communication, or colleagues, but it does have a significant positive correlation with salary, additional benefits, and performance-based awards. Implication for practice. This implies that academics who exhibit a significant degree of emotionality prioritize financial compensation, additional benefits, and performance-based rewards over the nature of their work, communication, and relationships with colleagues.

Keywords: emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, lecturer, well-being, sociability.

When considering an individual's intelligence, we often assess their knowledge and their capacity to effectively use that knowledge. Nevertheless, the concept of "intelligence" is complex and has multiple dimensions (Goswami, 2019). Linda Gottfredson, a psychology professor, along with 51 other university professors who specialize in intelligence and related fields, including about one-third of the editorial board of the journal Intelligence, provide the following definition of intelligence: "Intelligence is a broad mental capacity that encompasses various abilities such as reasoning, planning, problem-solving, abstract thinking, understanding complex ideas, quick learning, and learning from experience." It encompasses more than just acquiring knowledge from books, focusing on a specific field of study, or excelling in exams. Instead, it signifies a broader and more profound ability to

Address: No.1 Nantai Street, Yungkang Dist., Tainan City, 710301, Taiwan. E-mail: leeannej@stust.edu.tw

ORCID: 0000-0002-6694-1861

Introduction

comprehend our environment — to grasp, comprehend, or determine the appropriate course of action (Gottfredson et al., 1997).

John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey, prominent American psychologists, are widely recognized as the pioneers of the conceptualization of emotional intelligence (EI) during the 1980s (Trifonova, 2020). Daniel Goleman introduced the term Emotional Intelligence to the public in the 1990s (Goleman, 1995). Subsequently, other theories of emotional intelligence have emerged, each including essential principles such as the ability to recognize and interpret one's own feelings and those of others, as well as effectively utilizing, understanding, and regulating emotions (Julai, 2022). Individuals that possess emotional intelligence exhibit traits such as self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, and social competence. Moreover, these attributes are positively correlated with feelings of well-being, positive mood, and self-worth (Karadencheva, 2019). Clearly, not all individuals who are considered emotionally sophisticated are devoid of anger, fear, anxiety, and negative emotions. Devoid of these inherent human emotions, our species would not have endured (Tripathy, 2018).

Individuals with high emotional intelligence can comprehend the influence of emotions on their cognition and behavior, enabling them to effectively harness their emotions (Ninivaggi, 2020). "Anyone can experience intense anger, which is straightforward." Expressing anger against the appropriate individual, in the appropriate degree, at the appropriate moment, for the appropriate cause, and in the appropriate manner can be challenging. The concept of emotional intelligence (EI) is eloquently and concisely elucidated by Aristotle's quote. Emotional intelligence encompasses problem-solving abilities, cognitive capacity, and emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence has a significant impact on various aspects of life, including relationships with oneself and others, stress management, individual performance, moods, leadership, and productivity (McClellan, DiClementi, 2017). Daniel Goleman introduces a paradigm consisting of five dimensions (Goleman, 1995). This paradigm places significant emphasis on self-management, self-awareness, motivation, social aptitude, and empathy.

Self-management refers to the ability to control one's impulses and emotions, to be honest and responsible for one's behavior, and to approach new ideas and techniques with satisfaction (Gbarale, 2022). Self-awareness facilitates self-assessment and the immediate identification of emotions as they arise (Lewis, Minar, 2021). Motivation is perceived as the inherent quality that guides or enables the achievement of objectives. The concept encompasses dedication, motivation, and initiative (Heckhausen, Heckhausen, 2018). Social skills facilitate the elicitation of suitable responses, active and enthusiastic listening, the motivation of others, and effective collaboration towards a shared goal and objective (Hesse et al., 2014). Empathy is the ability to understand and appreciate the emotions, worries, desires, and viewpoints of others (Hakansson, Summer, 2021).

Job satisfaction pertains to individuals who experience contentment in their employment (Rao, 2019). The study conducted by H. P. Madrid with colleagues found that mood and emotions had a significant impact on overall job satisfaction, leading to a noticeable change (Madrid et al., 2020). The initial study on organizational behavior did not consider emotions as significant variables. The workplace was perceived as a domain of logical deliberation. A recent study has shown that emotions are essential in highlighting both positive and negative events in organizational environments (Sudirman, 2021). Empirical research have provided evidence of the significance and use of emotional intelligence in evaluating and resolving these challenges in the workplace. Illustrative instances encompass performance (Papoutsi et al., 2019), teamwork (Lee, Wong, 2017), leadership effectiveness (Rathore, Pandey, 2018), and organizational change (Mindeguia et al., 2021).

The factors that drive a scholar to select an academic profession and adopt an academic lifestyle remain uncertain. University teachers may have chosen this career choice due to the influence of

their professors during their academic journey. They may have viewed this profession as a chance to obtain the emotional and personal benefits associated with the employment, such as personal growth and a feeling of accomplishment (Lupu, 2020). According to Begley with colleagues (2019), numerous professors opt for the university campus as their preferred location because of their inclination to help others. Indeed, the significance of the quality of tertiary education, especially in the field of business and management courses, has reached unprecedented levels (Sena, 2020). Professors have a crucial role in shaping and nurturing students' academic, emotional, and social growth, preparing them with the required skills to either enter the business sector or continue their academic journey in future universities (Doskach et al., 2022).

The correlation between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction and achievement is strong (Haleem, Ur Rahman, 2018). According to C. Papoutsi with colleagues, it refers to the ability to comprehend and connect with individuals, as well as adjust to and manage one's surroundings in order to enhance effectiveness in satisfying environmental requirements (Papoutsi et al., 2019). Emotional intelligence facilitated the prediction of work performance by demonstrating our ability to apply emotional comprehension to the current situation (Sudirman, 2021). M. Srivastava and S. Jaiswal contended that IQ alone does not solely determine an individual's success. Instead, they posited that emotional intelligence plays a key role in achieving success in both personal and professional endeavors (Srivastava, Jaiswal, 2022).

In Taiwan, there is a scarcity of study regarding the correlation between emotional intelligence and work satisfaction, specifically in relation to university teachers. Exploring the potential correlation between emotional intelligence and job happiness among Taiwanese professors could uncover opportunities for personal growth and stimulate additional investigation in this domain, thereby augmenting the significance of this research (Edara, 2021). Job satisfaction is essential for all aspects of business (Madrid et al., 2020). The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of emotional intelligence on the level of job satisfaction among university professors in Taiwan. The project will examine the following research inquiries. What is the level of emotional intelligence among university teachers in Taiwan? Furthermore, what are the specific tiers of job satisfaction experienced by university professors in Taiwan? Is there a correlation between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction among university teachers in Taiwan?

Literature review

Emotional intelligence

Peter Salovey, a psychologist from Yale University, along with his colleague John D. Mayer, introduced the concept of "emotionalintelligence"in 1990. Since then, this word has gained popularity and is now widely used. P. Salovey and J. Mayer aimed to precisely identify emotional intelligence as a form of intelligence (Tripathy, 2018). To accomplish this, they recognized the necessity of fulfilling four crucial requirements (Mayer, Salovey, 1990). P. Salovey's definition of emotional intelligence encompasses both interpersonal and intrapersonal talents and is delineated in five dimensions. The concept, formulated in collaboration with David Sluyter, Ph.D., the program director at the Fetzer Institute in Kalamazoo, MI, states that emotional intelligence encompasses the abilities to understand one's own emotions, regulate one's emotions, motivate oneself, recognize emotions in others, and navigate interpersonal interactions (Salovey, Sluyter, 1997).

The first domain in P. Salovey's model is self-awareness, which refers to the capacity to identify and acknowledge one's emotions as they arise. He asserts that this forms the basis of emotional intelligence as the capacity to observe and assess emotions in real-time is crucial for psychological

insight and self-awareness. Individuals who possess a higher level of emotional certainty are more adept at managing their lives and have a more accurate understanding of their own emotions while making personal choices (Tripathy, 2018). The second category, emotional regulation, refers to the capacity to effectively manage one's emotions in a manner that aligns with social norms, and is built upon the foundation of self-awareness (Salovey, Sluyter, 1997). Salovey considers the ability to overcome uneasiness, despair, anger, and the effects of disappointment as a fundamental emotional talent. These individuals exhibit enhanced resilience in overcoming life's obstacles and challenges (Liu, Boyatzis, 2021).

The third domain involves harnessing emotions to drive oneself towards a goal, which is crucial for maintaining focus, self-motivation, achieving mastery, and fostering creativity (Salovey, Sluyter, 1997). Emotional self-control, characterized by the ability to postpone immediate satisfaction and suppress impulsive responses, is a catalyst for achieving achievement in various domains (Tripathy, 2018). Accessing a motivated state facilitates remarkable accomplishments (Schmid et al., 2021). Individuals possessing the aptitude for motivation have a propensity for exceptional productivity and efficacy in their endeavors (Galli, 2020). P. Salovey's fourth domain, as outlined in 1997, pertains to the ability to identify and acknowledge emotions in other individuals. Empathy, which is another skill that relies on emotional self-awareness, is a crucial interpersonal capacity. Individuals that possess empathy demonstrate heightened sensitivity towards small cues that indicate the wants or desires of others (Tripathy, 2018).

The final domain, which is the fifth one, pertains to the management of relationships and involves the regulation of emotions both within oneself and in relation to others. This encompasses the ability to exhibit influential leadership proficiency (Salovey, Sluyter, 1997). Individuals who possess the cognitive ability to navigate and manage interpersonal connections are highly regarded in society and excel in activities that depend on building relationships with others (Galli, 2020).

While conducting research on emotional intelligence, P. Salevoy explored the realm of emotional competency and the physiological development of the brain (Tripathy, 2018). He delineated five primary ramifications for instructors. The nature and quality of interactions between teachers and children, as well as between peers, have a significant impact on brain development, attention, and learning. Throughout the process of development, the manner in which individuals engage in social and educational interactions significantly influences the formation of the brain. The development of the brain is flexible and greatly influenced by experiences during childhood, which enhance synaptic connections (Salevoy, Sluyter, 1997).

Furthermore, schooling can be seen as a crucial factor in enhancing neocortical control and self-awareness (Salevoy, Sluyter, 1997). Educators possess the capacity to significantly contribute to enhancing the connections that facilitate the merging of emotions, language, and thinking abilities (Galli, 2020). While the educational material holds significance, the method of instruction may hold greater importance (Tripathy, 2018). Furthermore, the enhancement of frontal lobe abilities is crucial for achieving positive results in academic, social, and personal aspects (Salevoy, Sluyter, 1997). The frontal lobe can maintain focus, solve social problems, tolerate irritation, and regulate both negative and positive emotions (Tripathy, 2018).

The initial stages of developing interpersonal awareness and self-control involve assisting children in cultivating an understanding of emotional processes, both within themselves and in others. This includes employing verbal labels to identify emotions and promoting the ability to view situations from different perspectives and empathize with others (Salevoy, Sluyter, 1997).

According to P. Salevoy's research, children who exhibit the most impulsive and harmful behavior have the least ability to express and communicate their feelings (Galli, 2020). Ultimately, giving careful attention to children's emotions and their impact as a fundamental aspect of classroom procedures

will result in enhanced individual academic achievements (Tripathy, 2018). Providing instruction on effective methods for dealing with, expressing, and controlling emotions helps children to sustain their concentration and attentiveness in academic and social learning situations (Salevoy, Sluyter, 1997).

The credit for popularizing the notion of emotional intelligence in the business world today can be attributed to psychologist Daniel Goleman (Julai, 2022). Daniel Jay Goleman was born in the state of California in the year 1946. He is a two-time contender for the Pulitzer Prize and has authored over ten books on psychology, education, science, and leadership. He worked as a writer for the New York Times for a duration of twelve years, focusing specifically on the fields of psychology and brain sciences (Tiffin, Paton, 2020). D. Goleman has classified emotional intelligence (EI) into five distinct categories: emotional self-awareness, emotional management, effective utilization of emotions, empathy, and relationship management. D. Goleman asserts that emotional self-awareness encompasses proficiency in three distinct domains. The initial step entails enhancing one's ability to identify and label their own emotions. The second factor is a heightened capacity to comprehend the underlying reasons behind one's emotions. Emotional self-awareness encompasses the capacity to distinguish between emotions and behaviors (Goleman, 1995).

D. Goleman's second classification pertains to the regulation of emotions (Goleman, 1988). This category encompasses enhanced capacity for coping with frustration and managing anger, the ability to express anger in a suitable manner, effective stress management, and reduced levels of social anxiety. D. Goleman references a passage from Aristotle's work, as I previously mentioned, that succinctly encapsulates D. Goleman's attributes of emotional management: "It is easy for anyone to become angry." However, it is not a simple task to direct one's anger towards the appropriate individual, with the appropriate intensity, at the appropriate moment, for the appropriate intention, and in the appropriate manner.

The third category encompasses self-responsibility and self-control. Reducing impulsive actions and postponing immediate satisfaction are crucial attributes of emotional intelligence. D. Goleman's fourth category is empathy and the capacity to discern and understand the feelings of others. This encompasses skills such as adeptness in adopting another individual's point of view, heightened empathy towards others' emotions, and enhanced attentiveness to others' communication. D. oleman's ultimate category is to managing relationships, encompassing all aspects of interpersonal communication (Goloman, 1988). This area encompasses harmony in groups, which involves sharing, cooperation, and helpfulness. Additionally, it encompasses the practice of mediation in interpersonal interactions, an individual's ability to express themselves, and the capacity to effectively address conflicts and negotiate differences (Putra, Smolek, 2020).

According to Daniel Goleman, emotional literacy has a crucial role in enhancing children's socialization skills in the academic context (Maksimova, 2021). D. Goleman argues that schools and educators should go beyond their conventional objectives, while also emphasizing the importance of increased community engagement in schools (Goleman, 1995). Schools typically do not incorporate the teaching of emotional literacy (Maksimova, 2021). Goleman posits that a self-selection process occurs among teachers who are drawn to instruct emotional literacy courses, as not every individual possesses a temperament well-suited for engaging in discussions on emotions (Goleman, 1995). The teacher's ability to effectively respond to a student is crucial since they may need to do so multiple times during a class or throughout the day. Therefore, the teacher's competence and their approach to managing themselves and interacting with the student are of utmost importance (Maksimova, 2021). In addition, he maintains that apart from the task of instructing, the community bears an obligation, since children are influenced both within and beyond the confines of the classroom and must acquire emotional proficiency in their daily encounters. According to L. A. Camras and

A. G. Halberstadt, he believes that assessing this skill should not take place in a school setting, but rather in a real-life context (Camras, Halberstadt, 2017).

Emotional intelligence, as defined by Dr. David Ryback, a researcher and author of the book "Putting Emotional Intelligence to Work: Successful leadership is more than IQ," encompasses four key elements: enhancing instincts, regulating negative emotions, uncovering abilities, and effective management (Ryback, 1998). D. Ryback's research has primarily centered around adults seeking to enhance their emotional intelligence. D. Ryback's attributes for each of the four components exhibit a correlation with the criteria of emotional intelligence provided by the academics (Kotsou et al., 2018).

The initial element of his skill set involves honing his instincts. This entails developing a more profound comprehension of one's own emotions and their impact on others. These elements pertain to the ability to make sound personal decisions and demonstrate empathy towards cultural variations (Ryback, 1998). The second component encompasses techniques for managing anger, resolving conflicts, and reducing negative emotions. The third element entails the exploration and identification of individual aptitudes and abilities. This category emphasizes a "task-based" approach, prioritizing components such as individual projects, programs for self-improvement, and empathetic approaches to human interactions (Kotsou et al., 2018). Finally, D. Ryback's fourth element is exceptional managerial abilities (Ryback, 1998). This encompasses the capacity to enhance one's communication aptitude, mediate conflicts, and uphold principles of justice, ethics, and morality (Kotsou et al., 2018).

Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction has received plenty of interest and research within the corporate or financial (Ismail et al., 2022). However more recently studies are being aimed at the very institutions from whence these businesspeople came from (Fischer et al., 2019). From as early as the late 1950s, a great deal of researchers has developed theories around the nature of job satisfaction (Izvercian et al., 2016). Within this research they have developed various models to explain differences in these research findings (Khan et al., 2021). One of the most noted job theories was developed by F. Herzberg with colleagues (Herzberg et al., 1959).

Fredrick Hertzberg's Two Factor Theory (also known as Motivator Hygiene Theory) attempts to explain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace (Herzberg et al., 1959). According to this, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by motivation and hygiene factors. Motivating factors are those aspects of the job that make people want to perform and provide people with satisfaction, e.g., achievement in work, recognition, promotion opportunities (Marsudi et al., 2022). These motivating factors are considered to be inherent to the job, or the work carried out. Hygiene factors include facets of the working environment such as pay, company policies, supervisory practices, and other working conditions (Lee et al., 2022). Hertzberg's model has motivated further research, although the model fails to specify to measure the motivating factors of hygiene (Marsudi et al., 2022).

Abraham Harold Maslow was an American psychologist and professor who is notorious for inventing the Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a model of psychological health centred on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization (Hogan, Brucato, 2013). He emphasized the significance of concentrating on the positive qualities in people, rather than treating them as a group of symptoms. In his theory, A. Maslow claims that human beings have desires, wants and needs and those human needs are arranged in a hierarchy beginning with the most basic to the highest and these are: (1) physiological needs, (2) safety or security needs, (3) social and belonging or affiliation needs, (4) Self-esteem, ego or status needs and (5) the need for self-actualization (Maslow, 1987; Mbua, 2003).

Figure 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Source (McLeod, 2007)

The most commonly believed description of job satisfaction was offered by E. U. Locke, who defined job satisfaction as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences" (Locke, 1976). Additionally, two psychology professors, Dr. Douglas Bernstein, a psychology professor and chairman of the National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology and founder of the APS Preconference Institute on the Teaching of Psychology and Award winning community college Professor Peggy W. Nash, both Authors of the book "Essentials of Psychology" explain job satisfaction as having emotional, cognitive and behavioral components. The emotional component refers to feelings concerning the job, such as boredom, anxiety, or excitement. The cognitive component of job satisfaction refers to beliefs concerning one's job, for example, feeling that one's job is mentally demanding and challenging. Another factor that influenced job satisfaction was leadership (Bernstein, Nash, 2008).

Job satisfaction in education

The role of educators has always been significant. Teaching is a venerable and highly esteemed vocation, as noted by F. Butera with colleagues (Butera et al., 2020). The faculty of a higher education institution is a crucial asset and plays a significant influence in achieving the university's objectives (Pham, 2021). Nevertheless, the main responsibilities of academic personnel encompass three distinct domains: teaching, research, and administration and management (Dirsa et al., 2022). The primary aims of higher education encompass the provision of comprehensive knowledge, the cultivation of students' intellectual growth, the pursuit of academic advancement, and the facilitation of national development demands (Butera et al., 2020). These studies are affirming the concept of the significance of an educator's responsibility and the influence they wield as a leader and exemplar for their pupils and the learning environment.

Teachers reported being satisfied when their principals exhibited effective leadership, inspiration, a dedication to excellence, thorough training, and high qualifications, as stated by R. Cansoy and by L. Hamilton Jr. and B. N. King Jr. (Cansoy, 2018; Hamilton, King, 2020). A. Dirsa with colleagues discovered that instructors reported enhanced responsiveness and communication when interacting with administrators who demonstrated reliability and motivation, hence facilitating the achievement of important goals (Dirsa et al., 2022). These studies have highlighted the importance of an individual's influence in an academic environment, which includes not only their own emotions but also the emotions of people in their vicinity. Teachers attributed great significance to job satisfaction because to its direct impact on the educational environment for children (Pham, 2021). According to A. Dirsa with colleagues, teachers who have a strong sense of job satisfaction are more inclined to view their role in the school as fulfilling in the long run, prioritize the significance of their work, demonstrate increased productivity and commitment to the school, and have higher rates of staying in their positions (Dirsa et al., 2022).

Job satisfaction and emotional intelligence

The current investigations investigate the levels of emotional intelligence and job happiness. I shall explore the potential correlation between the two. Both fields of research focus on the interaction between individuals, their surrounding environment, and the reciprocal influence they have on each other. The study conducted by Nahid Naderi Anari in 2012, published in the Journal of Workplace Learning, examined the correlation between emotional intelligence and job happiness, as well as the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, specifically among high school English teachers. N. N. Anari employed a survey research methodology, employing a random sampling technique to pick the participants. The study findings revealed a strong and meaningful correlation between emotional intelligence and work satisfaction, emotional intelligence and organizational commitment, as well as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Moreover, a study conducted by N. N. Anari revealed that there is no notable disparity in job satisfaction and organizational commitment among high-school English teachers of varying genders and ages (Anari, 2012).

The study conducted by M. Platsidou examined the trait emotional intelligence of Greek special education teachers and its correlation with burnout and job happiness (Platsido, 2010). Specifically, the study evaluated the perceived emotional intelligence of primary special education teachers in Greece in connection to their levels of burnout and job satisfaction. There was a belief that emotional intelligence (EI) had a strong correlation with burnout syndrome and job satisfaction. This suggests that instructors with a high level of perceived EI are more likely to experience lower levels of burnout and higher levels of job satisfaction. Subsequent analysis indicated that emotional tiredness may be anticipated based on satisfaction levels about the job itself and its primary subscales. Depersonalization, on the other hand, can be predicted by satisfaction levels regarding the job and potential promotions. Job satisfaction and emotional intelligence factors such as optimism and mood control were found to be predictors of personal accomplishment.

Researchers Konstantinos Kafetsios and Leonidas A. Zampetakis from the Department of Psychology at the University of Crete, Greece, and the Department of Production Engineering and Management at the Technical University of Crete, Greece, respectively, conducted a study on how positive and negative emotions experienced at work (affect) influence the relationship between personality traits (Emotional Intelligence) and job satisfaction. The sample consisted of 523 educators who successfully filled out the Wong Law Emotional Intelligence Scale, a modified version of the Job Affect Scale, and the General Index of Job Satisfaction. The survey findings indicate that both positive and negative emotions experienced at work play a significant role in mediating the connection between emotional intelligence (EI) and job satisfaction. Notably, positive emotions have a greater impact on job satisfaction compared to negative emotions. Within the four dimensions of Emotional Intelligence (EI), the utilization of emotions and the management of emotions were found to be important and separate predictors of influence in the workplace. This finding further supports the notion that job-related events have an impact on employees' attitudes towards their employment.

P. Salovey's conceptualization of emotional intelligence encompasses both interpersonal and intrapersonal abilities and is delineated into five domains: self-awareness, emotional regulation, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills (Salovey, Sluyter, 1997). E. A. Locke provided the prevailing definition of job satisfaction, stating that it is a state of pleasure or pleasant emotions that arise from evaluating one's employment or job experiences. In addition, job satisfaction encompasses emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects (Locke, 1976; McClellan, DiClementi, 2017). Based on the correlation of these definitions, it can be concluded that there is a distinct relationship between the two.

The data presented clearly demonstrates that job satisfaction is directly correlated with an individual's physical, mental, and emotional well-being. According to J. McClellan and G. DiClementi, those who are more content with their employment and work environment are more likely to experience job satisfaction McClellan, DiClementi, 2017). The individual's emotional state will subsequently influence their interactions with both coworkers and students. Consequently, the way individuals handle these emotions and feelings as an intern will impact their interactions and the way they express their own thoughts (Heckhausen, Heckhausen, 2018). The present inquiry will focus on comprehending these notions from a Taiwanese perspective and using the selected variables delineating the study.

When examining the aforementioned research results, it is crucial to acknowledge that comprehending emotional intelligence and job happiness, as well as their correlation, holds significant importance for the faculty of the tertiary education system in Taiwan and the institution as a whole. Moreover, considering the significance of education in contemporary society, the manner in which students are impacted, whether in a constructive or detrimental manner, will directly affect the realm of commerce, into which these scholars will eventually venture.

Research methodology

This study examines the correlation between emotional intelligence levels and job happiness. This study employs a survey-based methodology, where a questionnaire consisting of diverse questions pertaining to factors associated with the two topics of investigation is administered. This method was designed to quantify the prevalence of different perspectives and ideas within a selected sample. All participants in this study were exclusively from the academic sector in Taiwan.

Initially, the two sets of variables were examined separately to determine the values of each, with the aim of investigating a potential correlation. Subsequently, these variables underwent analysis using Cronbach's Alpha and the General Linear Model. To ascertain the data's validity and the significance of the link between the variables, it is necessary to examine them both individually and in groups.

The degrees of emotional intelligence were assessed using characteristics such as wellbeing, emotionality, self-control, and sociability. By utilizing these criteria, one can evaluate if an individual is seen as possessing a superior or inferior level of emotional intelligence. This study utilized the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form (TEIQue-SF) designed by K. V. Petrides to assess the levels of emotional intelligence among lecturers in Taiwan. Trait emotional intelligence is evaluated by means of self-report using the extensive version of the TEIQue (Petrides, 2001). This assessment comprises 153 items, 13 facets, and employs a 7-point Likert scale, where participants score their agreement level on a scale ranging from «1» (totally disagree) to «7» (absolutely agree). The queries formulated with negative wording are assigned inverse weights. It is considered a dispositional attribute associated with emotions and is a fundamental aspect of one's personality. Trait emotional intelligence refers to an individual's subjective assessment of their own emotional capabilities (Sevdalis, Petrides, 2007). It was demonstrated that the TEIQue-SF has satisfactory levels of reliability and validity (Petrides, Furnham, 2006).

In addition, this study utilized the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) established by Paul Spector (1985) to assess the levels of job satisfaction. The JSS can produce 10 scores. The assessment evaluates nine aspects, which encompass compensation, advancement opportunities, managerial oversight, additional perks, benefits, rewards for performance, working environment, colleagues, the nature of the job, and communication. Each subscale comprises four items. The overall job satisfaction score

is calculated by aggregating the scores of all 36 items. The items are presented as statements and are assessed by selecting the option that is most like one's personal experience on a scale ranging from «1» to «6». Certain objects are expressed in a good manner, while others are expressed in a negative manner. ones that are positively directed imply a sense of contentment with one's job, whereas ones that are negatively directed indicate a feeling of discontent or unhappiness with one's job. Items with negative wording should be reversed: a score of «6» is converted to «1», «5» to «2», and so on (Spector, 1985; Spector, 1997).

Furthermore, after gathering all the required data, the SPSS GLM Multivariate test and Amos Path analysis will be employed to examine any positive or negative associations between the two variables. The GLM Multivariate approach provides regression analysis and analysis of variance for multiple dependent variables, using one or more component variables or covariates. The factor variables partition the sample population into several groups. Furthermore, this study employed the general linear model method to examine the interactions among components and the impacts of specific factors. The job satisfaction variables in the model were categorized into two distinct groups. The first aspect pertained to financial matters, including salary, additional benefits, and potential prizes. The second aspect did not include financial matters, but rather focused on factors such as colleagues, job responsibilities, and communication. Therefore, this study presents the visual representation of the path analysis for Amos Model A and Model B, which are:

WB \ Emo

* 4

Figure 2. Amos model a path analysis. Source: author's own elaboration

Figure 3. Amos Model B path analysis. Source: author's own elaboration

Results and analysis

The findings of this study, as presented in Table 1, demonstrate the correlation between the total emotional intelligence levels of the sample and four specific factors: well-being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability. The TEIQue-SF scores have been recalibrated to range from 1 (minimum) to 7 (highest), with a theoretical average of 3.5.

Table 1. "Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form" data analysis result

Well-Being Self-Control Emotionality Sociability Global Trait EI

5.17 6.33 5.63 3.67 5.23

4.50 4.33 3.50 5.00 4.37

6.17 6.17 6.25 5.17 6.13

6.50 5.33 5.63 4.83 5.60

5.67 6.17 6.13 5.00 5.77

6.17 4.50 5.63 5.33 5.50

4.50 4.83 5.75 4.83 4.93

6.33 5.50 5.50 5.00 5.73

6.17 5.67 5.25 4.33 5.47

7.00 6.83 6.88 6.50 6.83

4.17 5.50 5.25 5.50 5.27

5.83 5.67 5.25 4.33 5.23

6.00 4.83 4.75 4.50 5.03

4.83 6.17 6.25 5.17 5.63

4.50 5.00 4.50 4.33 4.63

4.33 3.17 5.88 3.67 4.43

4.50 4.67 6.13 4.50 4.87

4.17 3.17 6.00 3.67 4.27

4.67 4.83 5.00 5.00 4.80

4.83 4.17 4.88 4.00 4.67

7.00 5.00 6.25 3.83 5.70

6.00 6.17 6.75 5.67 6.23

7.00 5.83 5.88 6.33 5.93

6.67 6.33 6.00 6.33 6.37

4.33 5.33 4.38 3.67 4.33

5.17 4.33 4.25 4.83 4.67

5.67 4.83 4.25 5.33 5.33

5.33 5.00 5.25 3.83 4.87

5.67 4.83 4.75 5.33 5.17

4.33 3.83 4.38 3.33 4.07

4.67 4.50 4.63 4.33 4.63

4.50 5.00 4.00 3.00 4.13

5.00 4.17 3.63 4.33 4.70

6.00 4.50 4.25 3.00 4.57

6.00 5.50 5.13 3.17 4.80

6.50 3.17 4.00 3.50 4.57

5.00 5.17 4.88 5.67 5.33

6.17 5.50 6.00 4.83 5.70

6.00 5.33 4.75 4.33 5.33

5.67 4.67 5.00 5.33 4.67 3.67 5.50 4.00 6.17 5.50 6.00 5.17 7.00 5.50 5.00 5.83 5.50 6.50 5.43

4.67 5.17 4.50 4.33 4.17 4.50 5.00 6.17 5.67 5.83 3.33 4.83 5.67 4.67 5.00 5.33 4.50 6.17 5.03

5.50 5.25 4.50 6.13 5.75 4.38 5.25 6.38 4.13 5.00 5.75 5.25

5.75 5.25 6.00 5.13 6.00 5.27

5.88

4.50 4.00 4.67 3.83 5.33 3.83 4.00 5.83 3.33 4.33 4.67 5.83 5.67 4.83 4.83 4.17 5.17 3.50 4.58

5.17 4.93 4.57 4.87 4.90 4.07 4.83 5.73 4.77 5.27 5.20 5.50 6.27 5.37 4.97 5.43 5.33 5.47 5.15

Note: Source: Author's own elaboration

The data from Table 1 indicates that the minimum score for the well-being level was 3.67, which is somewhat higher than the expected average of 3.5. The maximum score recorded was 7. The average value within the sample was 5.43. This indicates a significant degree of overall satisfaction and contentment within the group being studied. K. V. Petrides found that high scores on this category indicate a broad sense of overall satisfaction, encompassing past achievements as well as future prospects. In general, individuals who obtain high scores experience feelings of positivity, happiness, and contentment. Conversely, individuals with low scores typically exhibit diminished self-esteem and harbor discontentment with their own living circumstances. The well-being scores are predominantly contingent upon the remaining three variables of the TEIQue-SF (Petrides, 2001).

Furthermore, the assessment of self-control yielded a low score of 3.17 and a high score of 6.17. The average value for self-control was 5.03. This indicates that the sample exhibits a level of self-control that surpasses the average. Individuals who score high in this aspect demonstrate a significant level of mastery over their compulsions and desires. K. V. Petrides asserted that in addition to inhibiting impulses, individuals with this trait excel at managing external demands and stress. They exhibit a balanced level of emotional expression, neither suppressing nor excessively displaying their emotions. On the other hand, those with low scores exhibit a tendency towards impulsive actions and a deficiency in their capacity to cope with stress. Stubbornness is linked to low self-control (Petrides, 2001).

The average score for emotionality was 5.27, making it the third highest score. The sample had a minimum score of 3.5 and a maximum score of 6.13. Individuals who obtain high scores on this component hold the belief that they possess a diverse array of skills related to emotions. According to K. V. Petrides, these persons possess the ability to perceive and regulate emotions, which they utilize to cultivate and maintain intimate relationships with individuals they deem significant. Individuals with low scores on this component experience challenges in recognizing their internal emotional states and articulating their emotions towards others, resulting in fewer satisfying personal interactions (Petrides, 2001).

The sociability factor is distinct from the emotionality factor as it places greater importance on social interactions and their societal consequences. The focus lies on the individual's role as an intermediary in various social settings, rather than on their personal connections with family and intimate acquaintances. The minimum score of the sample group was 3, while the maximum score was 6.33. The mean score was 4.58, indicating an above-average degree of sociability, although it was not considered as high. K. V. Petrides found that those who obtain high scores on the sociability factor exhibit superior skills in social interaction. They are confident in their ability to listen well and communicate confidently with individuals from highly different backgrounds (Petrides, 2001).

Individuals with low scores perceive themselves as lacking the ability to influence the emotions of others, which consequently diminishes their proficiency in negotiation and networking. They frequently exhibit hesitancy in determining their actions or words in social contexts, leading to a perceived demeanor of shyness and aloofness. Lastly, the fifth aspect of Global Trait EI encompasses all the factors indicated earlier in the study. The scores obtained from this assessment indicate the collective level of perceived emotional intelligence within the sample group. The minimum score recorded was 4.07, surpassing the expected mean of 3.5. The maximum score for this component was 6.83. We utilized a Likert scale to measure the amount of emotional intelligence. The scale spanned from «1» (minimum) to «7» (highest), with a theoretical mean of 3.5.

The average score for the TEIQue-SF is 5.15, following the adjustment of the data to match the scale range. The average score of the TEIQue-SF in this investigation was comparatively elevated. This suggests that the lecturers possess comparatively elevated levels of emotional intelligence. The TEIQue-SF employs four categories to collect data: well-being, emotionality, sociability, and self-control. The categories that exhibited the greatest average score were well-being, with a mean score of 5.43, and emotionality, with a mean score of 5.27. K. V. Petrides found that individuals with high scores on well-being have a comprehensive and encompassing feeling of contentment, encompassing both previous achievements and future prospects (Petrides, 2001).

The findings of the TEIQue-SF indicate that the participants in the study exhibit a notable degree of reported positivity, happiness, and contentment, as well as a favorable perspective towards the future. The well-being scores are predominantly influenced by the other three components of the TEIQue-SF. Furthermore, those who obtain high scores on the emotionality scale demonstrate a diverse set of talents related to emotions. This suggests that university professors in Taiwan possess a considerable degree of emotional intelligence, which is closely associated with their well-being and emotional state.

K. V. Petrides elucidates that these persons possess the ability to perceive and regulate emotions, which they employ to cultivate and maintain intimate connections with individuals they deem significant (Petrides, 2001). Examining the discovery of the five components in the study reveals certain shared understandings among the previously proposed literature. P. Salovey defines emotional intelligence as the ability to understand and regulate one's own emotions, self-motivate, perceive emotions in others, and navigate interpersonal interactions (Salovey, 1997).

Table 2. "Job Satisfaction Survey" data analysis result

Pay Promotion Supervision Fringe benefits Cont. rewards Operating conditions Co-workers Communication Nature of work Total satisfaction

3.50 1.25 6.00 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 4.75 5.00 3.83

4.50 4.50 5.50 5.25 5.25 3.25 5.50 5.75 4.75 4.92

6.00 5.75 4.00 5.75 5.50 2.00 5.50 5.75 5.75 5.11

4.25 4.00 5.25 5.00 5.00 3.00 4.75 5.50 5.50 4.69

4.00 3.00 3.50 4.25 4.25 3.00 5.00 3.50 5.00 3.94

4.00 4.00 4.75 3.75 4.75 3.75 4.25 5.00 5.00 4.36

4.50 3.50 3.75 4.75 3.50 2.25 4.50 2.75 3.75 3.69

5.00 4.50 5.75 5.75 6.00 3.00 5.25 5.50 6.00 5.19

3.25 2.50 3.75 3.25 3.25 2.50 3.75 4.50 4.25 3.44

6.00 5.75 6.00 6.00 5.75 4.50 5.75 6.00 6.00 5.75

2.50 3.00 3.75 2.75 3.75 3.00 3.25 3.00 3.75 3.19

4.75 3.50 4.25 5.25 4.75 3.00 5.00 5.25 5.75 4.61

4.75 3.75 5.00 4.75 4.25 2.75 4.50 4.50 5.00 4.36

2.25 3.25 4.25 3.00 3.75 3.75 4.75 5.25 5.25 3.94

3.00 3.00 1.25 2.75 2.00 2.00 3.50 2.25 4.25 2.67

5.00 3.25 5.00 4.25 2.50 2.50 2.75 2.00 2.50 3.31

4.00 3.75 4.25 3.00 2.75 3.75 3.25 3.75 2.25 3.42

3.00 3.75 5.00 4.25 3.00 1.00 4.50 3.25 3.50 3.47

5.00 4.25 4.50 5.00 5.00 1.00 3.75 4.50 3.25 4.03

3.75 3.75 4.00 4.00 4.50 2.75 4.25 4.00 5.00 4.00

5.75 3.75 6.00 5.25 5.50 1.75 6.00 5.50 6.00 5.06

4.50 3.50 3.50 4.75 3.75 2.75 4.50 4.25 6.00 4.17

4.00 4.00 5.75 4.75 4.50 2.00 6.00 4.75 5.25 4.56

3.00 2.50 4.25 4.25 3.25 2.50 4.50 5.50 6.00 3.97

3.75 2.75 2.50 4.25 3.00 2.25 5.00 3.00 4.50 3.44

3.00 3.25 4.50 3.50 3.75 2.50 4.00 3.25 4.75 3.61

3.00 3.25 5.25 3.00 4.50 4.75 4.25 5.00 5.50 4.28

2.75 3.00 3.75 4.75 4.25 2.25 5.00 5.25 4.50 3.94

1.75 1.25 2.50 1.25 2.50 2.50 4.25 1.75 5.00 2.53

2.25 3.25 3.50 2.00 2.50 3.50 2.75 3.00 4.75 3.06

4.75 4.50 5.00 5.00 5.00 3.50 5.50 5.00 5.50 4.86

2.25 1.00 5.00 2.75 4.25 2.00 5.50 5.50 5.00 3.69

1.75 4.00 3.25 1.00 3.25 1.00 3.50 2.25 2.75 2.53

3.75 4.75 5.00 4.25 5.25 2.25 4.75 5.00 4.25 4.36

4.25 4.00 5.00 5.25 4.75 3.25 4.00 4.75 4.50 4.42

3.75 3.00 2.50 3.25 3.75 3.25 4.50 3.75 5.75 3.72

2.75 3.25 3.50 3.00 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.75 4.25 3.44

3.75 4.75 5.00 5.00 5.00 3.50 4.75 5.00 5.00 4.64

3.00 1.00 4.25 5.00 4.00 2.50 5.50 5.50 5.00 3.97

4.25 3.25 5.25 4.25 4.25 3.50 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.33

3.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.50 3.50 5.00 4.00 3.25 3.81

4.00 4.25 3.75 4.00 4.00 3.00 3.75 4.25 3.75 3.86

3.75 3.25 4.50 3.75 4.25 1.50 3.25 4.75 5.50 3.83

4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 4.00 3.25 5.00 4.50 4.75 4.33

3.50 2.25 4.00 1.00 3.50 2.75 4.75 4.00 3.00 3.19

3.50 3.25 4.50 3.75 4.00 2.50 4.00 4.00 4.25 3.75

3.50 2.50 3.25 4.25 2.75 3.50 3.75 4.00 2.75 3.36

3.50 3.75 4.25 4.75 4.00 3.25 5.00 2.00 5.00 3.94

3.00 4.25 4.25 3.50 4.25 4.00 5.25 4.50 5.00 4.22

3.50 3.25 4.75 4.75 5.50 2.00 5.00 5.25 6.00 4.44

2.25 3.00 3.00 3.25 3.25 2.50 3.25 2.75 3.75 3.00

5.25 4.75 2.25 4.25 3.00 4.75 5.25 5.50 5.50 4.50

5.25 5.00 5.00 5.75 5.25 5.25 4.75 4.75 5.50 5.17

4.50 4.75 4.25

3.00 5.50 5.25

3.25 3.00 3.50

5.50 3.75 5.00

3.78 3.57 4.29

4.50 2.50 4.00 5.25 4.04

4.75 3.75 3.00 5.00 4.06

4.00 4.00 2.00 3.25 2.92

5.00 4.75 4.00 5.00 4.50

4.25 5.50 4.75 4.50 4.32

3.25 6.00 5.50 4.50 4.70

4.36 4.47 3.67 4.64 4.02

Note: Source: Author's own elaboration

Table 2 presents the results of the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) study, which includes nine factors: compensation, advancement, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating conditions, coworkers, communication, and type of employment. The sum of these components offers valuable understanding of the overall level of job satisfaction. The JSS scores have been recalibrated to span from 1 (lowest) to 6 (maximum), with a theoretical average of 3. This study analyzes individual elements individually, presenting the minimum, mean, and maximum scores for each.

The level of pay satisfaction ranged from a minimum score of 1.75 to a maximum score of 5.5. The average score for pay was 3.78. This data indicates that the respondents are rather content with their current salary status. Furthermore, the promotion score reflects an overall level of contentment with regards to advancement prospects. The minimum score recorded was 1, while the maximum score reached 5.75. The average value for this component was 3.57. Furthermore, the minimum score recorded was 1.25. The maximum value was 6 and the average was 4.29. The findings indicated an above-average level of satisfaction with regards to job supervision.

Furthermore, the average value for this component was 4.04. This indicates a marginally higher level of contentment with non-monetary perks above the usual salary arrangement. The minimum value was 1, while the maximum number was disclosed as 5.75. The contingent reward system is a motivation-based system that rewards individuals who successfully achieve their specified objectives. It offers positive reinforcement as a reward for a job that has been successfully completed. The results indicated above-average satisfaction with the structure, with a mean of 4.06. The minimum score was 2 and the maximum score was 6. Furthermore, the aspects unrelated to finances: Furthermore, operating conditions refer to the level of contentment that someone experiences in their work environment. The ratings indicated a slightly below-average level of satisfaction with this area, with a mean score of 2.92. The minimum score recorded was 1, while the maximum score reached 5.75.

Additionally, co-workers assess the degree of contentment with the colleagues that an individual works with. The survey unveiled an average score of 4.50, suggesting a marginally elevated level of pleasure. The minimum score recorded was 3.25, while the maximum score reached 5.5. Furthermore, the study found that the average score for communication was 4.32, indicating a somewhat above-average degree of satisfaction with the communication within their work environment. The minimum score recorded was 1.75, while the maximum score was 5.75.

Moreover, this study unveiled a notable degree of contentment about the quality of job performance, with an average rating of 4.70. This rating specifically pertains to the lecturer's responsibilities and tasks at their respective university (referred to as the nature of work). The job satisfaction factors that received the highest mean score are co-workers, communication, and type of work. This indicates that there is a notable degree of job satisfaction among university instructors in Taiwan.

The study utilized two main independent variables derived from the emotional intelligence data: well-being and emotionality. These characteristics were compared to six selected dependent variables of job satisfaction, which include pay, fringe benefits, co-workers, nature of work, communication, and contingency rewards. The multivariate test yielded statistically significant results for both well-being and emotionality. The well-being variable exhibited a statistical significance of .000, while the emotionality variable exhibited a statistical significance of .001.

When examining the between-subjects effect on well-being, each of the 6 dependent variables of work satisfaction were independently examined. While pay and fringe benefits did not exhibit any significant value, the remaining four dependent variables displayed a substantial value. Furthermore, when examining the impact of emotionality on job satisfaction, each of the six dependent variables was assessed separately. The variables of co-worker, communication, and contingency rewards did not demonstrate any statistically significant values. The variables of compensation, fringe benefits, and nature of work all shown substantial correlations with emotionality.

Table 3. GLM test result

Dependent variable Independent variable ß Std. Error t P

Pay Well-being -.142 .097 -1.47 .147

Emotionality .251 .069 3.629 .001***

Fringe Benefit Well-being -.189 .119 -1.594 .117

Emotionality .207 .085 2.425 .019

Co-Worker Well-being .206 .072 2.884 .006***

Emotionality -.01 .051 -.198 .844

Nature work Well-being .558 .104 5.373 .000***

Emotionality .105 .075 1.413 .163

Communication Well-being -.267 .148 --1.8 .077

Emotionality .106 .106 .998 .323

Cont. Rewards Well-being -.367 .136 -2.69 .009***

Emotionality .005 .098 .047 .963

Note: Source: Author's own elaboration

When examining the between-subjects effect on well-being, each of the six dependent variables of work satisfaction were assessed separately. While pay and fringe benefits did not exhibit any meaningful value, the remaining four dependent variables demonstrated a substantial value. In addition, the study examined the impact of emotionality on job satisfaction by testing each of the six dependent variables separately. The variables of co-worker, communication, and contingency rewards did not demonstrate any statistically significant values. The variables of pay, fringe benefits, and nature of work all shown substantial correlations with emotionality. These findings prompted the decision to do additional testing of the variables using the Amos Path analysis program. The aim was to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the potential positive and negative connections between the two factors of emotional intelligence and the six factors of job satisfaction.

Table 4. General linear model — multivariate test result

Effect Parameters Value F Is df Error df P

Intercept Pillai's Trace .481 7.738(a) 6 50 .000

Wilks' Lambda .519 7.738(a) 6 50 .000

Hotelling's Trace .929 7.738(a) 6 50 .000

Roy's Largest Root .929 7.738(a) 6 50 .000

WB Pillai's Trace .376 5.031(a) 6 50 .000

Wilks' Lambda .624 5.031(a) 6 50 .000

Hotelling's Trace .604 5.031(a) 6 50 .000

Roy's Largest Root .604 5.031(a) 6 50 .000

Emo Pillai's Trace .309 3.731(a) 6 50 .004

Wilks' Lambda .691 3.731(a) 6 50 .004

Hotelling's Trace .448 3.731(a) 6 50 .004

Roy's Largest Root .448 3.731(a) 6 50 .004

Note: Source: Author's own elaboration

General linear model findings

The general linear model (GLM) test technique provides regression analysis and variance analysis for multiple dependent variables using one or more component variables or covariates. The population is stratified based on the categorical variables. The variables of well-being and emotionality, which are considered the most significant factors in the emotional intelligence data, were employed. The study involved comparing these factors to six specific variables that determine job satisfaction: salary, additional benefits, colleagues, job tasks, communication, and performance-based compensation. The multivariate test yielded significant results for both well-being and emotionality. The importance of well-being was 0.000, while the significance of emotionality was 0.004.

The well-being between-subjects effect was assessed by independently examining the six dependent variables of work satisfaction. While compensation and fringe benefits did not have a substantial impact, the other four dependent factors did. When assessing the impact of Emotionality on job satisfaction, each of the six dependent variables associated with job satisfaction was analyzed individually. The co-worker values, communication, and contingent incentives all had no meaningful impact. Significant values were seen in relation to emotionality, remuneration, fringe perks, and nature of employment. Based on these findings, it was determined that further examinations of the variables should be carried out using the Amos Path analysis software. This would provide a more comprehensive knowledge of the potential positive and negative relationships between the two emotional intelligence components and the six work satisfaction factors.

Amos Model A path analysis results

Path analysis provides a method to evaluate the alleged causal impact of one variable on another by considering its presumed causal effect on other variables. An alteration in one component results in a modification in the second variable. The test conducted in model A utilized the subsequent variables. The observed endogenous determinants were compensation, perks, performance-based incentives, colleagues, job characteristics, and communication. The observed external influences were well-being and emotionality. The unobserved exogenous variable pertained to the level of job satisfaction.

-.35

Figure 4. Amos Model A path analysis results. Source: author's own elaboration

This study examined the relationship between work satisfaction and its constituent components. Job satisfaction shown a strong positive association with all categories, with the exception of co-worker relationships and the nature of job. This implies that lecturers who are content with their careers do not prioritize their colleagues or the nature of their work. This study concludes that lecturers who experience high work satisfaction are also more likely to have high levels of satisfaction in the categories of income, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, and communication.

Table 5. Path Analysis — Model A standardized regression results

Variables Estimate

Job Satisfaction Well-Being -.451

Job Satisfaction Emotionality .144

Pay <--- Job Satisfaction .539

Fringe Benefit <--- Job Satisfaction .718

Cont. Rewards <--- Job Satisfaction .853

Co-Workers <--- Job Satisfaction -.641

Nature of work <--- Job Satisfaction -.559

Communication <--- Job Satisfaction .710

-.35

Figure 5. Amos Model B path analysis results. Source: Author's own elaboration

Table 6. Path Analysis — Model A regression result

Variables Estimate S.E. C.R. p

Job Satisfaction <--- Well-Being -.193 .071 -2.726 .006

Job Satisfaction <--- Emotionality .044 .042 1.055 .292

Pay <--- Job Satisfaction 1

Fringe Benefit <--- Job Satisfaction 1.538 .408 3.773 ***

Cont. Rewards <--- Job Satisfaction 2.029 .497 4.08 ***

Co-Workers <--- Job Satisfaction -.811 .229 -3.535 ***

Nature of work <--- Job Satisfaction -1.168 .361 -3.238 .001

Communication <--- Job Satisfaction 1.807 .482 3.751 ***

Note: Source: Author's own elaboration

Moreover, Model A demonstrates the absence of a substantial link between well-being and job satisfaction. The regression weights tables indicated that well-being had a considerable adverse impact on job satisfaction. This suggests that those with a high level of well-being do not prioritize overall job satisfaction.

Table 7. Path Analysis — Model B standardized regression weights

Variables Estimate

Money Well-being -.296

Non-Money Emo .134

Money <--- Emo .347

Non-Money <--- WB .657

Pay <--- Money .699

Fringe Benefit <--- Money .865

Cont. Reward <--- Money .700

Co-Worker <--- Non-Money .656

Nature of work <--- Non-Money .927

Communication <--- Non-Money -.495

Note: Source: Author's own elaboration

Table 8. Path Analysis — Model B regression results

Variables Estimate S.E. C.R. P

Money <--- Well-being -.164 .079 -2.073 .038

Non-Money <--- Emotionality .034 .032 1.07 .284

Money <--- Emotionality .138 .058 2.381 .017

Non-Money <--- Well-being .233 .063 3.702 ***

Pay <--- Money 1

Fringe B <--- Money 1.43 .29 4.934 ***

Cont. Reward <--- Money 1.283 .28 4.587 ***

Co-Workers <--- Non-Money 1

Nature of work <--- Non-Money 2.335 .52 4.489 ***

Communication <--- Non-Money -1.518 .452 -3.357 ***

Note: Source: Author's own elaboration

In this model B, the work satisfaction variables were categorized into two distinct groups. The first component was monetary compensation, consisting of salary, perks, and performance-based incentives. The second factor consisted of non-monetary elements, including colleagues, job tasks, and communication. The regression weights tables indicated a statistically substantial negative connection between well-being and money, as well as a very statistically significant positive correlation between well-being with non-money. This study concludes that lecturers who are seen to have a high level of well-being are not primarily motivated by monetary incentives, but rather by non-monetary factors. The analysis of the data showed that emotionality did not have a significant impact on non-monetary outcomes, but it had a large favorable impact on monetary outcomes. This suggests that lecturers who are seen to have a high level of emotionality prioritize monetary variables above non-monetary factors.

Moreover, according to Table 5, money had a significantly beneficial impact when compared to the individual elements of fringe benefits and dependent rewards. There was a strong and statistically significant positive association between non-monetary factors and the nature of labor. This indicates that non-monetary factors have an impact on fringe benefits, contingent rewards, and the characteristics of work. When this study examined the relationship between non-monetary factors and communication, a strong and statistically significant negative link was found. This suggests that non-monetary factors have no impact on communication. Based on these explanations,

it may be inferred that there is a correlation between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction among university teachers in Taiwan. Finally, the non-monetary characteristics had no substantial link with the nature of labor.

Conclusion

The objective of this study is to assess the emotional intelligence and job satisfaction levels of university lecturers in Taiwan, and to examine the potential correlation between emotional intelligence and job happiness in this group of lecturers. The study's findings indicate a reasonably high level of well-being and emotionality, as measured by the mean score of the TEIQue-SF, which assesses emotional intelligence. This suggests that the lecturers possess a rather high level of emotional intelligence, which refers to their perceived capacity to understand and effectively regulate their emotions.

D. Ryback asserts that elevated levels of emotional intelligence result in exceptional managerial abilities. This encompasses the capacity to enhance communication aptitude, mediate disagreements, and uphold principles of justice, ethics, and morality (Ryback, 1998). Proficiency in all of these abilities is necessary for a university instructor and leader to be effective. This study aims to inform university lecturers, professors, and students about the presence of emotional intelligence among Taiwanese university instructors. Additionally, it allows anyone involved with professors to observe the impact that emotional intelligence and job satisfaction can have on the well-being of lecturers and pupils.

Another finding about job satisfaction reveals that effective communication, the type of work, and colleagues are strong indicators of lecturers' high degree of happiness with both their workplace and their employment. This also demonstrates contentment with the level of communication both within universities in Taiwan and between different departments. The primary finding of this study is that there exists a correlation between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in the obtained results. Lecturers who are seen to have a high level of well-being are not preoccupied with financial considerations, but rather with non-financial factors.

This study demonstrates that emotionality does not have a substantial impact on non-monetary outcomes, but it does have a big favorable impact on monetary outcomes. This suggests that professors who are viewed as very emotional are not focused on non-monetary elements, but rather on monetary issues. The findings suggest that an above-average degree of satisfaction will enhance the quality of teaching delivered by a lecturer. The study revealed that university professors exhibit a significant level of emotional intelligence. In order to ensure the sustainability of this trend, it is imperative for Taiwanese institutions to stress the cultivation of essential competencies such as communication, reasoning, comprehension, creativity, and management skills in their curricula, considering the potential future role of their students as instructors. Assessments of emotional intelligence should be taken into account when hiring professors or evaluating candidates for advancement in the workplace.

This research shed insight on two potentially contentious concepts. Knowledge enables us to cultivate and acquire new skills and understanding. Individuals are likely to be more motivated to participate in future research and contribute to an improved academic environment for both teachers and students if they possess a deeper understanding of emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, and the factors that influence these concepts.

Suggestions for future research

Further research should examine the factors that impact the job satisfaction of university instructors. Presently, this area of research is fairly limited. The extensive body of research on workplace Job Satisfaction cannot be generalized to the population of university teachers in Taiwan.

Research focused on professor job satisfaction may lead to the adoption of strategies in universities, hence decreasing the prevalence of dissatisfied lecturers. Another recommendation for future research is to standardize the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) specifically for the Taiwanese population, in order to ensure its reliability and validity within the context of Taiwan. This will provide more precise conclusions when examining the emotional intelligence characteristics of the Taiwanese population.

Conducting qualitative study to analyze the experiences of individuals with high emotional intelligence can provide a more profound comprehension of these individuals. This understanding could be beneficial in the creation of programs aimed at improving aspects of emotional intelligence, such as the effective use of coping strategies. This could potentially enhance the quality of higher education in universities.

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Received 27.11.2023

Эмоциональный интеллект и удовлетворённость работой в сфере высшего образования: случай преподавателей университетов Тайваня

ДЖОЭННЕСС Ли-Энн К.

ORCID: 0000-0001-9372-3627

Южно-Тайваньский университет науки и технологий, Тайнань, Тайвань

ПРЕССЛИ Гарет

ORCID: 0000-0002-6694-1861 Университет Провиденса, Тайчжун, Тайвань

Аннотация. Эмоциональный интеллект и удовлетворённость работой являются сегодня важными факторами поведения работника на рабочем месте. Академические исследования и усилия по практической интеграции направлены на изучение этих факторов. Цель. Основная цель этого исследования — оценить уровень эмоционального интеллекта и степень удовлетворённости работой у преподавателей высших учебных заведений в тайваньских университетах. Кроме того, вторичная цель включает оценку корреляции между эмоциональным интеллектом и удовлетворённостью работой. Дизайн исследования. Сбор данных проводился с использованием опросного подхода и двух анкет для самостоятельного заполнения, а именно: «Краткая форма оценки эмоционального интеллекта как черты личности» (Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form, TElQue-SF) К. В. Петридеса и «Опросник удовлетворённости работой» (Job Satisfaction Survey, JSS) П. Спектора. Опрос показал, что преподаватели тайваньских университетов обладают значительным уровнем эмоционального интеллекта. Выводы. Результаты показывают, что эти люди обладают уровнем удовлетворённости работой, который выше среднего. Кроме того, полученные данные также свидетельствуют о том, что эмоциональность не влияет на характеристики работы, общения или коллег, но имеет значимую положительную корреляцию с заработной платой, дополнительными льготами и вознаграждениями по результатам работы. Значение для практики. Это означает, что преподаватели, демонстрирующие значительную степень эмоциональности, отдают предпочтение финансовой компенсации, дополнительным льготам и вознаграждениям по результатам работы, а не характеру своей работы, общению и отношениям с коллегами.

Ключевые слова: эмоциональный интеллект; удовлетворённость работой; преподаватель; благополучие; коммуникабельность.