CC BY
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Section 6. Linguistics
Stashko Halyna Ivanovna, Kiev National Linguistic University, postgraduate student, the Faculty of Germanic Philology E-mail: galinastashko@gmail.com
Different approaches to the classification of American folk songs
Abstract: American folk song corpus has been widely investigated using a variety of approaches to the classification issue. All approaches are of key importance since they don’t only simplify search, but also enable detailed and integrated analysis of culture and language.
Keywords: American folk song; American history and culture; folk song typology.
Folk songs exist in every culture being both a mouthpiece and a touchstone of history and national values. America, a comparatively young nation formed only several centuries ago, seems to incorporate by far the best song treasures brought by immigrants. Though American folk song heritage is allegedly claimed completely derived, it has its unique and prominent features. Many researchers and scientists find it difficult to root the public domain in question; more and more expert works are being conducted to prove its identity. Obviously the point in collecting, classifying and analyzing song folklore is not only to handle huge amounts of information, but also to identify similarities and therefore realize key differences in customs, apply received data in various spheres. It is worth noting that the most accurate classification doesn’t exist; each approach is considered true and contributory and that is the reason why we use a variety of viewpoints to the classification issue. The analyzed reference list allows speaking about folk song typologies taking into account origin, chronology, region, subject-matter, et alias.
American folk songs are tied in with America’s prominent historical events, so it appears logical to start by investigating the chronological approach offered by Theodore Raph [15], a noted composer, arranger and musical director. He classified American folk songs accordingly: Early America (1620-1810) (“Barbara Allen”, “Yankee Doodle”, etc.), Pioneer America (1810-1860) (“Down in the Valley”, “Cindy”, etc.), America’s Coming of Age (1860-1890) (“I ’ve Been Working on the Railroad”, “Clementine”, etc.), Turn-of-the-Century America (1890-1910) (“Daisy Bell”, “I Love You Truly”, etc.), Twentieth-Century America (1910 — the present) (“Red River Valley”, “Aura Lee”, etc.). This approach is still in use in directories and song collections as it is the easiest one in song tracking if the period the song achieved wide popularity in is known. Folklore can’t escape blurred dates, but the American
one being comparatively young gives mostly accurate time periods with some approximations in terms of very early American Indian samples. Indeed it reflects the times, the growth and the milestones of American history. Knowledge of history and culture are interconnected; once a child is aware of his/her family customs and traditions as well as historical events, there are high chances for a nation to show common progress. The one interested in his/her national heritage will learn from mistakes in the past and respect the values set through centuries.
Carl Sandburg [16], an American writer, poet and editor, in line with numerous online song banks [3; 11] and encyclopedias [4; 9; 17], presented an origin-based classification, i. e. into American-Indian (“Hey, Hey, Wataney”, “Shenandoah”, etc.), African (“Pick a Bale of Cotton”, “Good Morning Blues”, etc.), European (“Billy Boy”, “Greensleeves”, etc.) origin, et alias. It helps estimate the degree of influence cultures of origin have had upon Americans and root factors molding the nation. Those interested in spotting identities may find it useful to learn old overseas customs which contributed to present-day America. Each song is accompanied with the story behind it in the context of its historical and sociological setting as well as cultural roots. So there is possibly no better way to learn American culture formation than by using and analysing incredible folk songs.
Speaking about the connection of origin and American culture it must be mentioned that American-Indian songs play a vital role in history and education, with ceremonies and stories orally passing to new generations. Judging from the analyzed songs it is clear that many rituals are shaped by folklore and contain symbols important to the nation, tribe, community, family or individual. In other words, real life is performed through songs. Similarly, it has been found that due to lexical analysis many of the songs that are identified with struggle, empowerment, human rights, and perseverance originate
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Different approaches to the classification of American folk songs
from the African-American community. From blues and jazz to slave-era spirituals the influence of African culture on the evolution of folk music has been immeasurable. A great deal ofAmerican folk songs are of European origin, mainly brought by English-speaking immigrants and considered as the core background in everything connected with America due to geopolitical and social reasons. Combining, mixing, and melting into each other these cultures produced what is now called the American culture, inspired by the past though always future-oriented.
Analysing American folklore scholars often refer to the above mentioned classification as a means of culture interpretation. For instance, Alan Dundes invoked the “mirror" concept of Franz Boas that “folklore is invaluable as a reflection of a particular culture’s conditions and values”. The concept is still applied to relate historical and cultural information about a group, with the presumption that it is also a marker of a particularistic social identity [8, 54]. Similarly, Richard M. Dor-son [7] called for folklorists’ attention regarding American folklore as the background of American history, with its unique circumstances and environment. It is also remarkable that Benjamin A. Botkin [6] always insisted on approaches to folklore that did not separate the lore from the folk who created it. He saw the study and use of American folklore as contribution to creative writing, an understanding of history, and cultural renewal. He granted legitimacy to studying key aspects of the life of modern folk in tight connection with ancestors. Both Richard M. Dorson and Benjamin A. Botkin being opponents shared the common view that there was distinctive American folklore that needed to be studied in relationship to the nation’s history and literature.
Regional/geographical typology [11] is widely accepted in cases when folk songs are analysed to track regional peculiarities in terms of dialects and customs. Popular art pieces with fine and catchy melody may vary from Alabama (“Charlie Over the Ocean”, “Kitty Kitty Casket”, etc.) to California (“Mohave Bird-Dance Song”, “Song of the Eagle”, etc.), from Ozarks (“Bought Me a Cat”, “Gypsy Davy”, etc.) to Appalachia (“Go Tell Aunt Rhodie”, “Jolly is the Miller”, etc.), adding new words, lines and even couplets, juggling with characters and places. Apart from folk songs popular in each state or region, there are state songs devoted to be state anthems. The most well-known examples include “Our Delaware” (Delaware), “Carry Me Back to Old Virginny” (Virginia), “The Old North State” (North Carolina).
Folk songs may also be classified by subject matter. The classification proposed by Alice H. Osman and Jean McConochie [13] includes such groups as Songs of Youth and Love (“Billy Boy”, “Down in the Valley”, etc.), Songs of Work and Play (“I’ve Been Working on the Railroad”, “Pick a Bale of Cotton”, etc.), Songs of War and Protest (“The Hammer Song”, “We Shall Overcome”, etc.), Spirituals and Gospel Songs (“Rock-a My Soul”, “Do Lord, Remember Me”, etc.), Songs of the Moving West (“On Top of Old Smoky”, “Red River Valley”, etc.). Amy Appleby and Jerald B. Stone [5] also focused on subject-matter classification which highlights the following themes: Songs of Colony Times and British Roots (“In Good Old Colony Times”, “Bar’bra Allen”, etc.), On the Wild Frontier (“The Banks of the Ohio”, “The Yellow Rose of Texas”, etc.), Way Down South (“Dixie”, “Kentucky Babe”, etc.), From the Mountains and Valleys (“Red River Valley”, “She’ll Be Coming ‘Round the Mountain”, etc.), Battle Songs and Sea Shanties (“Sailing, Sailing”, “Just Before the Battle, Mother”, etc.), Hymns and Spirituals (“Amazing Grace”, “Rock-a My Soul”, etc.), Patriotic Anthems (“America, the Beautiful”, “The Marines’ Hymn”, etc.), Good Old Fashioned School Days (“School Days”, “Bright College Years”, etc.), Home for the Holidays (“Home, Sweet Home”, “Jingle Bells”, etc.), Songs of the Heart (“Beautiful Dreamer”, “I Love You Truly”, etc.), Novelties and Memories (“Daisy Bell”, “Grandfather’s Clock”, etc.) et alias. Additionally, online song banks [3; 11] give a wide range of subjects previously mentioned and add some extravagant ones such as Weather and Nature (“Sally Go ‘Round the Sunshine”, “Frosty Weather”, etc.), Birds and Animals (“The Cuckoo”, “Kitty Alone”, etc.), Food and Colours (“Shortnin’ Bread”, “Ida Red”, etc.), Professions and Skills (“Jolly is the Miller”, “Hunting Song”, etc.). Topical researchers provide very narrow typologies according to their scientific interests. These may by facetious songs (“Hole in My Bucket”, “A Frog Went A-Court-ing”, etc.) [1; 2], children’s songs (“Hush, Little Baby”, “Make New Friends”, etc.) [12], ballads (“Black Jack Davy”, “Father Grumble”, etc.) [10], which are further subdivided and meticulously analyzed. For example, Anna Maria Malko$ [12] gives a detailed classification of children’s songs: action and counting songs (“Hickory Dickory Dock”, “Ninety Miles from Home”, etc.), general group songs (“Billy Boy”, “Clementine”, etc.), rounds and part songs (“Are You Sleeping?”, “Make New Friends”, etc.), lullabies (“Hush, Little Baby”, “Sleep, Baby, Sleep”, etc.).
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Section 6. Linguistics
The subject-matter classification type is user-friendly and simple for those who are looking for instant musical activity ideas, singalongs, and programs. Drinking songs, sporting songs, train songs, work songs, war songs, and ballads do not identify the singer from the cultural perspective but create atmosphere regardless of region and family origin. Are folk songs more entertainment then? From its origin, folk music has mainly been the music of the working class. By rough definition, it is something anyone can understand and in which everyone is welcome to participate. However, judging from the American culture people generally treat the American folk song more as a tradition than entertainment as there are folk songs dating so far back, that they can be considered oral stories. They may tell stories that often don’t even appear in history books.
From the onset of American history, folk music has shown up at times when the people needed it most. Present-day America is celebrating the folk song and music revival. Whilst it is generally agreed that it is partly due to modern music and song bands that popularise American folklore, and partly because of scientific investigations that aim at interpreting words, phrases and images. But the main evidence to illustrate such a revival is immense popularity of the folk song itself which attracts more attention and appeals to more souls.
In this light, the linguistic approach to the classification of American folk songs may appear useful due to many a reason. First, it helps analyze the very popularity and explain it with linguistic proof provided. Second, folk data when used in teaching may facilitate the educational process, motivate and inspire students. Turning now to the details of the linguistic approach, research has shown that it may range depending upon the sphere of particular scientific interest. Folk songs may be grouped according to male and female characters (“Danny Boy”, “Oh, Susanna”, etc.), showing gender preferences throughout history. Stylistic, lexical and phonetic means and devices help identify regional/dialectal and social status peculiarities. It is clear from the above that the approach in question is highly recommended for educational purposes [14]. Then folk songs may be divided up to their level of complexity in terms of grammar and vocabulary used (“Go to Sleep, Little Baby” for beginners, “Where Have All the Flowers Gone?” for intermediate level). Monologue/dialogue division is found useful to develop speaking skills, learn/teach interrogative sentences and contribute to listening comprehension practice (“Lazy Mary”, “What Shall We Do with a Drunken Sailor?”, etc.).
Musical classification is of huge importance herein and thereafter. Music goes inseparably with a text and is perceived as an entire block. Thus, I consider grouping by musical principles in combination with cultural aspects a relatively organic, though still incomplete, classification of folk songs; which, in its turn, will promote national values and establish communication of generations. The more precise studies focus on musical instruments to accompany lyrics, rhythmic element, style, scale, form and meter parameters, etc.
Bearing in mind the approaches discussed in this article, I propose to examine the famous song, “Clementine”, and fit it to different classifications with particular attention paid to practical usage ofthe received information. The classical approaches listed herein help users understand historical and cultural environment (chronological and origin-based approaches) in which the song was born and developed, the territory of its popularity (regional/geographical approach). The song belongs to the 1860-1890 period slot, when America was Coming ofAge [15]. It is of American origin [3; 4; 9; 11; 16; 17] which is proved by the historical event, Gold Rush that took place in California in 1849. The song is about a gold miner (Professions and Skills [3; 11]) and his daughter, Clementine, their life in the valley (From the Mountains and Valleys [5]) in the west of the USA (Moving West [13]). Both male and female characters make this folk song equally popular with men and women. The subject-matter classification focuses on the main characters, their lives and feelings, as these points are considered close to the audience. As far as the linguistic classification is concerned, the emphasis is on exact peculiarities of practical and scientific usage. For example, the song is worth using in teaching the Past Simple tense, inversions, prepositional phrases, vocabulary to the topic “Appearance”, the diphthong/ai/, aspiration, etc [13; 14]. Having analyzed stylistic and musical details, it is clear that the song is ironically humorous in manner [1] as it is rich in stylistically-marked vocabulary to describe the girl and its melody can be even whistled (the character J. Frank Parnell, played by Fox Harris, did it in the 1984 film Repo Man, directed by Alex Cox). Piano and guitar arrangements also sound rich and full. The fact that “Clementine” is used in cartoon show series (Huckleberry Hound by Hanna Barbera production; the Sci-fi show Red Dwarf), TV series (Shelley Duvall’s Tall Tales & Legends), nursery rhymes (“Call the Doctor”) speaks about its audience who are mainly children. It is interesting to note that its rhythm supplemented with repetition and anaphora is typical of a number of chants by sports supporters, such as the Barmy Army. The second stanza
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Different approaches to the classification of American folk songs
ofthe refrain bears marked similarities to the “Ale, Ale, Ale" fan chant heard at German DFB Pokal and UEFA Champions League soccer matches (“You are lost and gone forever, dreadful sorry, Clementine Scenes from serious
movies (the John Ford movie My Darling Clementine; Michel Gondry’s film, Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind) are immediately perceived ironic when melody excerpts are used as background.
Conspicuously, various sources give various approaches to the classification issue. Folklorists focus on regional/geographical factors, while musicians opt for melody and rhythm giving greater prominence to sense and instrument synergy; and for a linguist emphasis made is nothing but pure interest in words and images created by them and mingled with culture.
It appears, therefore, that an all-purpose scheme of classification is hardly possible and even ineffective. It comes from my analysis that each classification aims at a particular goal. Once significant features are distinguished and a specific concern is focused on, one has an empirical basis from which to determine such a classification and conduct further analysis.
All the above mentioned approaches undoubtedly prove the fact that American song folklore is claimed to be a major aspect of America’s national and cultural identity. Americans have always been proud of their musical and singing traditions; whatever classification is referred to, it always shows huge love to singing and huge love to America.
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