CC BY
34
Devices and Methods for Measuring of the Ambient Air Dust. Short Review
N.I. Mukhurov1, A.A. Khodin1, Y.-J. Kim2
1State Research and Production Association "Optics, Optoelectronics and Laser Technology", Nezavisimosty Ave., 68, Minsk 220072, Republic of Belarus
2Yonsei University, School of Mechanical Engineering, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
Received 28.01.2022
Accepted for publication 10.03.2022
Abstract
The main characteristics of airborne micro/nanoparticles, their impact on human health and air quality standards are presented. International standards classify microparticles by size (PM10, PM2.5, PM1, UFP), establish maximum allowable concentrations and control methods. Particular attention is paid to carbon-and virus-containing microparticles control. To monitor the air environment in enclosed spaces and in transport, the portable sensors of micro-, nanoparticles are required with the ability to classify them by size and electrophysical characteristics.
Detection of microparticles includes the sorting of particles entering the sensor by size and material type, subsequent actual detection of particles of the same kind, with subsequent classification by size, electrical and morphological characteristics. Separation of nano- and microparticles by size before detection improves the sensitivity and selectivity of the detector both in size and material. The virtual impactor and dielectro-phoresis method are considered for integration in a Lab-on-Chip type sensor. Detection of microparticles is performed by separating the dispersed phase from the aerosol followed by the analysis, or directly in the air flow. The classification of detection methods according to speed and functionality is given. Among the methods allowing detection of micrometer and submicrometer size particles, the most suitable for miniaturization and serial production of Lab-on-Chip sensors are the multi-wavelength photoelectric, MEMS, and capacitor elements.
The microelectromechanics, microfluidics and microoptics technologies make it possible to create portable sensor systems of the Lab-on-Chip type to detect particulates matter of micrometer and submicro-meter size. A micro-, nanoparticles detector prototype based on alumina technology using MEMS elements for a compact Lab-on-Chip type sensor is presented. The proposed design for multifunctional portable detector of airborne micro/nanoparticles is prospective for industry, transport, medicine, public and residential buildings applications.
Keywords: microparticles, detector, Lab-on-Chip, alumina technology, prototype. DOI: 10.21122/2220-9506-2022-13-1-7-16
Адрес для переписки: Ходин А.А.
ГНПО «Оптика, оптоэлектроника и лазерная техника», пр-т Независимости, 68, г. Минск 220072, Беларусь, e-mail: aahodin@gmail.com
Address for correspondence: Khodin A.A.
State Scientific and Production Association "Optics, Optoelectronics and Laser Technology", Nezavisimosty Ave., 68, Minsk 220072, Belarus e-mail: aahodin@gmail.com
Для цитирования:
N.I. Mukhurov, A.A. Khodin, Y.-J. Kim.
Devices and Methods for Measuring of the Ambient Air Dust. Short Review.
Приборы и методы измерений.
2022. - Т. 13, № 1. - С. 7-16.
DOI: 10.21122/2220-9506-2022-13-1-7-16
For citation:
N.I. Mukhurov, A.A. Khodin, Y.-J. Kim.
Devices and Methods for Measuring of the Ambient Air Dust.
Short Review.
Devices and Methods of Measurements.
2022, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 7-16.
DOI: 10.21122/2220-9506-2022-13-1-7-16
Приборы и методы измерений запылённости окружающей воздушной среды. Краткий обзор
1 1 ** 2 Н.И. Мухуров , А.А. Ходин , Енг Чжун Kим
1ГНПО «Оптика, оптоэлектроника и лазерная техника»,
пр-т Независимости, 68, г. Минск 220072, Беларусь
2 Университет Ёнсе, Колледж инженерии, Сеул 03722, Республика Корея
Поступила 28.01.2022 Принята к печати 10.03.2022
Представлены основные характеристики переносимых воздухом микро/наночастиц, их влияние на здоровье человека и нормативы качества воздушной среды. Международные стандарты классифицируют микрочастицы по размеру (PM10, PM2,5, PM1, UFP), определяют предельно допустимые концентрации и методики их контроля. Особое внимание уделяется контролю углерод-и вирус-содержащих микрочастиц. Для мониторинга воздушной среды в закрытых помещениях, в транспорте требуются портативные датчики микро-, наночастиц с возможностями их классификации по размеру и электрофизическим характеристикам.
Детектирование микрочастиц включает сортировку попадающих в детектор микро/наночастиц по размеру и типу материала и собственно детектирование однотипных частиц с последующей классификацией по размеру, электрофизическим и морфологическим характеристикам. Разделение нано- и микрочастиц по размеру перед детектированием повышает чувствительность и селективность детектора как по размерам, так и по материалу. Для интеграции в сенсоре Lab-on-Chip типа рассмотрены методы виртуального импактора и диэлектрофореза. Детектирование микрочастиц осуществляется с выделением дисперсной фазы из аэрозоля с последующим анализом либо непосредственно в воздушном потоке. Приведена классификация методов детектирования по быстродействию и функциональным возможностям. Среди методов детектирования частиц микронных и субмикронных размеров наиболее пригодны для миниатюризации и серийного изготовления Lab-on-Chip сенсоров мультиволновые фотоэлектрические, МЭМС, конденсаторные элементы.
Технологии микроэлектромеханики, микрофлюидики и микрооптики позволяют создавать портативные сенсорные системы типа Lab-on-Chip для детектирования твёрдых частиц микронного и субмикронного размера. Представлен прототип детектора микро-, наночастиц на основе алюмооксидной технологии с использованием МЭМС элементов для компактного сенсора Lab-on-Chip типа. Предлагаемая конструкция многофункционального портативного детектора микро/наночастиц воздушной (газовой) среды перспективна для применения в промышленности, транспорте, медицине, общественных и жилых помещениях.
Ключевые слова: микрочастицы, детектор, лаборатория на чипе, алюмооксидная технология, прототип.
DOI: 10.21122/2220-9506-2022-13-1-7-16
Адрес для переписки: Ходин А.А.
ГНПО «Оптика, оптоэлектроника и лазерная техника», пр-т Независимости, 68, г. Минск 220072, Беларусь, e-mail: aahodin@gmail.com
Address for correspondence: Khodin A.A.
State Scientific and Production Association "Optics, Optoelectronics and Laser Technology", Nezavisimosty Ave., 68, Minsk 220072, Belarus e-mail: aahodin@gmail.com
Для цитирования:
N.I. Mukhurov, A.A. Khodin, Y.-J. Kim.
Devices and Methods for Measuring of the Ambient Air Dust. Short Review.
Приборы и методы измерений.
2022. - Т. 13, № 1. - С. 7-16.
DOI: 10.21122/2220-9506-2022-13-1-7-16
For citation:
N.I. Mukhurov, A.A. Khodin, Y.-J. Kim.
Devices and Methods for Measuring of the Ambient Air Dust.
Short Review.
Devices and Methods of Measurements.
2022, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 7-16.
DOI: 10.21122/2220-9506-2022-13-1-7-16
Introduction
The improvement of technologies and methods to control harmful emissions into the atmosphere has not yet led to a global reduction in the total mass of emissions of the substances, primarily aerosols - the air-dispersed systems of microparticles in the form of dust, smoke, fog. The most common hazards are industrial dust of various nature and natural sources - dust storms, volcanic eruptions, etc. Microparticles in air environment disrupt functioning of equipment, deteriorate products quality, cause occupational acute and chronic diseases of respiratory system, circulatory system, eyes, and skin [1]. When penetrating deep into the lungs, they can deliver toxins, bacteria and viruses into the body.
Airborne particulate matter (PM) varies greatly in chemical composition, morphology and size. A number of international rules and standards for PM control have been developed that define the maximum allowable concentration of solid PM and methods to control them. The International Organization for Standardization ISO distinguishes several fractions of PM by size - PM10, PM2.5, PM1, Ultrafine particles [2]. In particular, PM10 is defined as "solid particles passing through an inlet of a specified size with an efficiency of 50 % at an aero-dynamic diameter of 10 ^m" [3]. Ultrafine particles smaller than 0.1 цт are referred to as PM0.1.
Permissible levels of airborne microparticles of the PM10, PM2.5 classes are standardized by the World Health Organization [4], European Union [5], US Environmental Protection Agency [6], Ministry of Environmental Protection of the PRC [7] and sanitary regulations of the Russian Federation1. Special attention is paid to airborne micro-, nanoparticles of carbon in the form of black carbon [8], brown carbon [9] and soot (carbon black), the aggregates of which do not break down in the lungs into smaller or primary particles of ~ 10 nm size [10].
It is also important to control specifically the airborne viruses and bacteria of 20-500 nm size [11, 12]. Pathogenic viruses are viable in air, forming complexes with other microparticles [13] and
1 Sanitary Rules and Norms of the Russian Federation 1.2.3685-21. Hygienic Standards and Requirements to Ensure the Safety and (or) Harmlessness of Environmental Factors for Humans. Chief State Sanitary Doctor of the Russian Federation. Decree of January 28, 2021, No. 2.
drifting for a long time at a low sedimentation rate -from 3.1*10-3 ms-1 for particles 10 ^m in size to 3.5*10-5 ms-1 for ~ 1 ^m size particles [14]. In particular, it has been established that SARS-CoV-2 viruses remain suspended in enclosed spaces for a long time [15].
Thus, the control of atmospheric air dust content is an urgent production, hygiene and engineering problem. In particular, for everyday monitoring of the air environment in enclosed spaces, in transport, where PM concentration is increased [16], the portable individual sensors of micro-, nanopar-ticles being able to classify them by size and material are required.
The task of creating microparticle detectors includes two aspects:
- sorting of micro/nanoparticles entering the detector by size and material,
- proper detection of particles of the same type and their classification by size, etc.
Technologies and methods of microelectro-mechanics, microfluidics, and microoptics make it possible to create portable Lab-on-Chip type sensor systems to detect PM dust particles. This is the subject of the present brief review. Particular attention is paid to the features of detecting of nanometer size PM0.1 and Ultrafine particles. The aim of the study was to develop a multifunctional portable detector of airborne micro/nanoparticles based on mi-croelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and alumina technology for industry, transport, medicine, public and residential buildings.
Micro/nanoparticles detection
General classification
Gas analyzers are used to control environmental pollution with gas and vaporous harmful substances; dust meters are used to measure concentration of dispersed pollutants. To get reliable data on the air pollution level, it is necessary to possess the reliable analytical techniques. The effectiveness of a technique is evaluated by a number of indicators:
- selectivity and accuracy;
- reproducibility;
- sensitivity;
- detection limits;
- express analysis ability.
The techniques to measure dust content in air could be divided into the two groups:
- with separating the dispersed phase: weight (gravimetric), counting (conimetric), radioisotope, photometric types;
- without separating the dispersed phase: optical, photoelectrical, acoustical, electrical ones.
A number of measurement techniques (see below) have been proposed to monitor compliance with the above standards. The measurement can be direct, as observation of effects arising from direct interaction with particles (for example, photons absorption/scattering), or indirect, as observation of secondary effects allowing conclusions to be drawn about the aerosol concentration (see Table for direct techniques). The collection techniques require the particles to be deposited, for example, on a filter for
a sufficient period of time to measure them, while online real-time (or near-real) systems determine concentration of suspended PMs continuously.
The measuring instruments provide data on mass concentration, density, sizes, composition, or other particle properties, for example, their ability to absorb/scatter optical or other radiation. The mass concentration is more relevant to health safety monitoring, while optical absorption is most interesting for climate studies as a decisive factor in global warming. The particle size could be directly obtained from a signal, or using additional techniques, such as initial separation of particles in size at entrance, or their ionizing followed by separation with high electric fields, etc.
Table
Direct techniques to measure air/gasborne particulate matters
Technique Output Output delay Time resolution
Optical
Aethalometry black carbon mass quasi-real-time minutes
Deposit imaging particle count, size minutes minutes
Direct imaging particle count, size real-time minutes
Lidar aerosol optical depth real-time minutes
Nephelometry particle count, size real-time seconds
Optical particle counting/spectrometry particle count, size real-time seconds
Photometry of soot particles mass real-time seconds
Photo(opto)acoustic spectrometry absorption real-time seconds
Spectropolarimetry polarization degree real-time minutes
Electrical
Capacitance particle count, size real-time seconds
Charge particle count real-time seconds
Inductance particle count, size real-time seconds
Mechanical/Acoustical
Film acoustic resonator mass real-time minutes
Oscillatory microbalance mass real-time seconds
Photo(opto)acoustic spectrometry absorption real-time seconds
Others
Gravimetry mass days to weeks hours
ß-irradiation attenuation mass minutes minutes
The important factor affecting the particle size and overall concentration estimation is the air humidity. Microparticles act as condensation cores which leads to significant increase in effective size readings of up to ~ 70 % relative humidity [17], for example, under optical measurements. On the other hand, this phenomenon is used to count the smallest-size nanoparticles [18]. Also, when collecting aerosol, the moisture accumulates in the filtering material affecting the measured mass [19], optical and electrical properties.
Consider the basic detection techniques of interest to create a compact Lab-on-Chip type device.
Gravimetry
This direct technique, despite its non-compactness and non-viability for Lab-on-Chip technology, should be mentioned as the established standard for PM measurements [20]. The technique is based on collecting particles by depositing them on a filter for a given time at a certain air flow rate, followed by their weighing and additional analysis. To collect a sufficient mass of microparticles, the sampler should be activated for a long time, so it shows average values and does not allow tracking short-term effects. To measure simultaneously PM10 and PM2.5, multiple samplers should be used with selective inputs for appropriate sizes.
P-irradiation attenuation
The P-irradiation attenuation measurement is based on absorption of beta radiation in solids to measure PM. However, the absorbed radiation is proportional only to the mass of the filtered substance and does not depend on its density, chemical composition, physical or optical properties. Typically, differential measurements are used, where the filter collects particles from the air flow, and the readings of two Geiger counters are compared, one of which is located before and one after the bleed air flow. The advantages of this technique include high accuracy, as well as shorter averaging time interval and delay compared to gravimetric measurements.
Acoustic techniques
In photoacoustic spectrometry [21], particles pass through a modulated laser beam. The illuminated particles heat up, releasing heat energy into the air. The heated air creates a sound wave whose
frequency exactly matches the modulation frequency of the laser. The sound wave is recorded by a sensitive microphone, and its amplitude being proportional to the particles' absorptivity.
Noise is also used to estimate indirectly the amount of airborne microparticles, for instance, to monitor the black carbon and PM concentration through traffic noise [22].
Optical techniques
The main technique to detect PM1 - PM10 microparticles uses a simple light emitting diode (LED)/photodetector optical scheme (Figure 1). Variety of compact sensors uses broadband LED 1 or semiconductor laser irradiation. Photons, scattered by microparticles 2, are detected by a semiconductor photodiode 3 and registered as time-dependent patterns 4. Some techniques have been developed to improve the accuracy of measurements by optimizing the operating modes of the irradiation source, receiver, and data processing procedure. A number of companies on the market produce optical compact sensors.
4 3 1
Wt
° * ^t
* m 2 *
Figure 1 - Multi-wavelength optical sensing of airborne microparticles: 1 - light-emitting diodes; 2 - microparticles flow; 3 - photodetector; 4 - spectral/temporal data [23]
The minimum detected size of PMs cannot be significantly less than the optical beam wavelength. For laser illumination, the 0.4 to 3.3 ^m radiation is used. Accordingly, the minimum radius of detected particles cannot be significantly less than ~ 100 nm. To improve the informativ-ity of measurement, in particular, to estimate the size distribution of particles, the multi-wavelength laser systems are considered [24], as well as in the multiwave ethalometry technique [25]. The multi-wavelength detector [24] allows the analysis of microparticles by size. Optical feedback could stabilize the laser source measuring [26]. For instance,
the optical particle counter of the Cubic Sensor and Instrument Co. [27] based on laser scattering technology could automatically identify and simultaneously output the number of particles in 6 channels including 0.3, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0 and 10 pm size particles.
Microelectromechanical system
MEMS elements are used to detect and analyze the airborne micro-, nanoparticles [28, 29]. This approach makes it possible, in principle, to perform serial and batch production of devices using microelectronics technology to miniaturize and reduce the cost of sensors and systems. Most MEMS sensors are based on electric counting of particles. These sensors have no high sensitivity due to small volume and flow of detected air and corresponding small value of detected electric current.
The microbalances are the mechanical systems used to determine PM mass concentration. In an oscillating microbalance, the particles are deposited in a small conical glass tube. The tube' natural frequency is changed by additional mass of deposited particles, thus, the particles mass could be determined. Unfortunately, the microbalance monitoring is sensitive to mechanical noise and temperature fluctuations [30].
The MEMS resonator systems have been proposed, such as cavity film acoustic resonator [31] or surface acoustic wave resonator [32] which use the thermophoresis effects to deposit particles on a sensitive element and measure the resonant frequency change in real time.
Capacitive detectors
Capacitive detection is a rather new technique to detect microparticles where the capacitance change is measured (typically ~ 10 zF = 10~20 F) that occurs when a microparticle(s) enters the electric field between two electrodes, or when they deposited on the surface of a CMOS logic gate [33]. The capacitance change amplitude can be used to estimate particle(s) diameter [34]. This technique is under development and could enable detection of particles smaller than 1 pm [35].
Nanoparticles detection
Detection of microparticles of some tens of nanometer has its own features when the above
methods are unsuitable in many cases. For the purposes of sensor miniaturization, the following solutions could be considered.
The known condensation type counter sensor use the technique of heterogeneous condensation of water vapors on nanoparticles [36]. The optical detection technique is used to count the formed micrometer-size water drops. The condensation type counter method is capable of detecting single nanoparticles [37] and possesses a high resolution in nanoparticle sizing when using a differential mobility analyzer nanoparticle selector [38]. The system includes a reservoir, a saturator, a condenser and a miniature optical drop detector.
In the electrical technique, the electrically charged nanoparticles in the device are counted by measuring the electric current in the circuit under their capturing (Figure 2).
Figure 2 - Electrical discharge/microfluidic detection of nanoparticles [39]
Such devices are distinguished by high accuracy and selectivity. The devices require high-voltage unit to pre-charge the entering nanoparticles.
Sorting
Separation of nano- and microparticles prior to detection makes it possible to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the detector, both in sizes and material thereof. Among the selection techniques, the two are most suitable for integration in a lab-on-chip device - virtual impactor and dielec-trophoresis.
Virtual impactor
The aerial microjet chip classifies microparticles in size using an inertial separator - so-called virtual impactor (Figure 3).
Figure 3 - Virtual impactor to select microparticles
Dielectrophoresis
The electric forces acting to micro-, nanopar-ticles under electrophoresis and dielectrophoresis (DEF) effects present the effective sensitive method to manipulate the particles when the device size lowers to Lab-on-Chip scale [40].
DEF is a selective electrokinetic effect including displacement of uncharged microparticles in inhomogeneous electric field due to interaction of their electrical dipole (induced or own) with electric field gradient. DEF forces action is defined by both the scale and electric properties of the particles and surrounding medium (gas or liquid). To create an inhomogeneous and non-stationary electric field in the DEF method, both the stationary and alternating electric fields are used, including additional constant bias. In particular, DEF method is successfully used to separate metallic and dielectric microparticles [41].
Lab-on-Chip MEMS detector of airborne nanoparticles
The above approaches are used in the MEMS detector under development where the micromembrane and capacitive measuring elements are used to gain higher sensitivity without pre-charging micro- , nanoparticles and with possibility to implement a complete measuring procedure in a single Lab-on-Chip device (Figure 4) [42].
Figure 4 - MEMS nanoparticle detector: 1 - porous membrane; 2 - virtual impactor; 3 - separator; 4 - nanoparticles; 5 - capacitive detector; 6 - output signals; 7 - microparticles outlet (to optical detector)
The detector contains a thin alumina plate with periodic array of micro/nanometer size through holes 1 and virtual impactor 2 for size separation of the particles. The subsequent dielectrophoretic/ther-mophoretic sorting 3 with gradient electric/thermal fields allows to separate PMs in narrowed nanosize intervals providing their oriented movement 4, as well as to determine their amount using the anodic alumina based interdigitated electrode matrices 5 in every channel for subsequent capacitive measurements 6. The additional detection of microparticles 7 from the impactor 2 could be performed by optical counting technique.
Conclusion
The classification of airborne microparticles by main types and size is presented. The main techniques for separating and detecting airborne solid microparticles of micrometer and submicrometer size using optical, capacitive, microelectromechani-cal system and other sensing elements are considered. A prototype design of a micro-, nanoparticles detector based on alumina technology using micro-electromechanical system elements for a compact Lab-on-Chip type sensor is presented. The prototype design contains mechanical filtering elements,
dielectrophoretic/thermophoretic cells, and capacitive detecting elements with separate output signals to estimate the amount and size of nanoparticles, and to detect additionally the microparticles by an optical technique.
References
1. World Health Organization (WHO). 7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution,014. Access mode: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releas-es/2014/air-pollution. Date of access: 11.01.2021.
2. International Standardization Organization. ISO 23210:2009. Stationary source emissions - determination of PM10/PM2.5 mass concentration in flue gas -measurement at low concentrations by use of impactors. Last reviewed and confirmed in 2015. Access mode: https://www.iso.org/standard/53379.html. Date of access: 11.01.2021.
3. Butterfield D.M., Quincey P. Measurement science issues relating to PM10 and PM2.5 airborne particles. National Physical Laboratory (NPL) Report AS 15, 2007, 36 p. ISSN 1754-2928. Teddington, Middlesex, UK.
4. World Health Organization (WHO). Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global update 2005. Summary of risk assessment. Access mode: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/ hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf. Date of access: 11.01.2021.
5. European Commission. Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe. Access mode: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- content/EN/ TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32008L0050&from=EN. Date of access: 11.01.2021.
6. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter. Federal Register 61144, 2006. Access mode: https://www. gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2006-10-17/pdf/06-8477.pdf. Date of access: 11.01.2021.
7. China Environmental Science Press. Ambient Air Quality Standards. National Standard of the People's Republic of China GB 3095, 2012. Access mode: http:// kjs.mep.gov.cn/hjbhbz/bzwb/dqhjbh/dqhjzlbz/201203/ W020120410330232398521.pdf. Date of access: 11.01.2021.
8. Long C.M., Nascarella M.A., Valberg P.A. Carbon black vs. black carbon and other airborne materials containing elemental carbon: physical and chemical distinctions. Review. Environmental Pollution, 2013, vol. 181, pp. 271-286.
DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.06.009
9. Andreae M.O., Gelencser A. Black carbon or brown carbon? The nature of light-absorbing
carbonaceous aerosols. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 2006, vol. 6, pp. 3131-3148. DOI: 10.5194/acp-6-3131-2006
10. Levy L., Chaudhuri I.S., Krueger N., McCun-ney R.J. Does carbon black disaggregate in lung fluid? A critical assessment. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 2012, vol. 25, pp. 2001-2006.
DOI: 10.1021/tx300160z
11. Pan M., Lednicky J.A., Wu C.-Y. Collection, particle sizing and detection of airborne viruses. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2019, vol. 127, pp. 1596-1611. DOI: 10.1111/jam.14278
12. Cuffari B. The size of SARS-CoV-2 and its implications. News-Medical.net - An AZoNetwork Site. Access mode: www.news-medical.net. Date of access: 02.15.2021.
13. Tang J.W. The effect of environmental parameters on the survival of airborne infectious agents. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 2009, vol. 6 (Suppl. 6), pp. S737-746.
DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2009.0227.focus
14. Hinds W.C. Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles. 2nd edition. New York, NY: Wiley. 1998. ISBN: 978-0-47119410-1.
15. Li X., Qi X., Ma J., Pan Y., Tian T., Zhang Y., Li Z., Li W., Sun L., Zhang L., Zhang Z., Wang Q., Yao M. SARS-CoV-2 remained airborne for a prolonged time in a lockdown confined space. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 2022, vol. 22, pap. 210131.
DOI: 10.4209/aaqr.210131
16. Zhao J., Birmili W., Wehner B., Daniels A., Weinhold K., Wang L., Merkel M., Kecorius S., Tuch T., Franck U., Hussein T., Wiedensohler A. Particle mass concentrations and number size distributions in 40 homes in Germany: indoor-to-outdoor relationships, diurnal and seasonal variation. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 2020, vol. 20, pp. 576-589.
DOI: 10.4209/aaqr.2019.09.0444
17. Chow J.C., Watson J.G. Guideline on Speciated Particulate Monitoring. Prepared for N. Frank, J. Ho-molya, Eds. US Environmental Protection Agency. Draft 3. 1998. Access mode: https://www3.epa.gov/ttnamti1/ files/ambient/pm25/spec/drispec.pdf. Date of access: 11.01.2021.
18. Yoo Seong-Jae, Jeon Jae-Wan, Kim Yong-Jun. Lab-on-printed circuit board based water harvesting condensation particle counter for ubiquitous monitoring of airborne ultrafine particles. Journal of Aerosol Science, 2022, vol. 160, pap. 105911 (14 p.).
DOI: 10.1016/j.jaerosci.2021.105911
19. Karali D., Loupa G., Rapsomanikis S. Nephe-lometer sensitivities for the determination of PM2.5 mass concentration in ambient and indoor air. Aerosol and Air
Quality Research, 2020, vol. 21, no. 1, pap. 200159 (8 p.). DOI: 10.4209/aaqr.2020.04.0159
20. European Standard EN 12341:2014. Ambient air - Standard gravimetric measurement method for the determination of the PM10 or PM2.5 mass concentration of suspended particulate matter. Access mode: https://www.nbn.be/shop/en/standard/nbn-en-12341-2014_38804/. Date of access: 11.01.2021.
21. Foster K., Pokhrel R., Burkhart M., Murphy S. A novel approach to calibrating a photoacoustic absorption spectrometer using polydisperse absorbing aerosol. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 2019, vol. 12, no. 6, pp.3351-3363.
DOI: 10.5194/amt-12-3351-2019
22. Dekoninck L., Botteldooren D., Panis L.I., Hankey S., Jain G., Karthik S., Marshall J. Applicability of a noise-based model to estimate in-traffic exposure to black carbon and particle number concentrations in different cultures. Environment International, 2015, vol. 74, pp. 89-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.10.002
23. Mukhurov M., Khodin A. Multiwavelength sensor of gas/airborne microparticles. 14th International Scientific and Technical Conference "Instrumentation -2021", Minsk, November 17-19 2021. Proc. BNTU, Minsk, Belarus, 2021, pp. 436-438 (in Russian).
24. Di Huige, Wang Zhixiang, Hua Dengxin. Precise size distribution measurement of aerosol particles and fog droplets in the open atmosphere. Optics Express, 2019, vol. 27, no. 12, pp. A890-A908.
DOI: 10.1364/0E.27.00A890
25. Saturno J., Pohlker C., Massabo D., Brito J., Carbone S., Cheng Y., Chi X., Ditas F., Hrabe de Angelis I., Moran-Zuloaga D., Pohlker M.L., Rizzo L.V., Walter D., Wang Q., Artaxo P., Prati P., Andreae M.O. Comparison of different Aethalometer correction schemes and a reference multi-wavelength absorption technique for ambient aerosol data. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 2017, no. 10, pp. 2837-2850.
DOI: 10.5194/amt-10-2837-2017
26. Rhee C., Yang H., Kim S. A PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 airborne particle detector with laser illumination stabilized by optical feedback. IEEE Sensors Journal, 2020, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 1988-1996.
DOI: 10.1109/JSEN.2019.2949008
27. Cubic Sensors and Instrument Co., Ltd. Access mode: https://en.gassensor.com.cn/index.html. Date of access: 01.20.2022.
28. Kim H.-L., Han J.S., Lee S.-M., Kwon H.B., Hwang J., Kim, Y.-J. Ultrafine particle counter using a MEMS-based particle processing chip. 28th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), Estoril, Portugal, January 18-22, 2015, Proc., pp. 559-562.
DOI: 10.1109/MEMSYS.2015.7051016
29. Wasisto H.S., Merzsch S., Waag A., Uhde E., Salthammer T., Peiner E. Airborne engineered nanoparticle mass sensor based on a silicon resonant cantilever. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 2013, no. 180, pp. 77-89.
DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2012.04.003
30. Gilliam J.H., Hall E.S. Reference and Equivalent Methods Used to Measure National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Criteria Air Pollutants - Vol. I. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R-16/139. 2016. Access mode: https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_ record_report.cfm?dirEntryId=321491. Date of access: 11.01.2021.
31. Paprotny I., Doering F., Solomon P.A., White R.M., Gundel L.A. Microfabricated air-micro-fluidic sensor for personal monitoring of airborne particulate matter: Design, fabrication, and experimental results. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 2013, vol. 201, pp. 506-516.
DOI: 10.1016/j.sna.2012.12.026
32. Hao W.-C., Liu J.-L., Liu M.-H., He S.-T. Development of a new surface acoustic wave based PM 2.5 monitor. In: 2014 Symposium on Piezoelectricity, Acoustic Waves, and Device Applications (SPAWDA), Proc. IEEE, 2014, pp. 52-55.
DOI: 10.1109/SPAWDA.2014.6998524
33. Ciccarella P., Carminati M., Sampietro M., Ferrari G. 28.7 CMOS monolithic airborne-particulate-matter detector based on 32 capacitive sensors with a resolution of 65zF rms. 2016 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), 2016, pp. 486-488.
DOI: 10.1109/ISSCC.2016.7418119
34. Carminati M., Ferrari G., Sampietro M. Emerging miniaturized technologies for airborne particu-late matter pervasive monitoring. Measurement, 2017, vol. 101, pp. 250-256.
DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2015.12.028
35. Carminati M., Ciccarella P., Sampietro M., Fer-ran G. Single-chip CMOS capacitive sensor for ubiquitous dust detection and granulometry with sub-micrometric resolution. In: Sensors: Proc. of the Third National Conference on Sensors, February 23-25, 2016, Rome, Italy. Ed. by B. Ando, F. Baldini, C. Di Natale, G. Marrazza, P. Siciliano. Springer International Publishing, 2016, pp. 8-18.
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-55077-0_2
36. Stolzenburg M.R. McMurry P.H. An ultrafine aerosol condensation nucleus counter. Aerosol Science and Technology, 1991, vol. 14, no.1, pp.48-65.
DOI: 10.1080/02786829108959470
37. Kangasluoma J., Kuang C., Wimmer D., Ris-sanen M.P., Lehtipalo K., Ehn M., Worsnop D.R., Wang J., Kulmala M., Petaja T. Sub-3 nm particle size and composition dependent response of a nano-CPC
battery. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 2014, no. 7, pp. 689-700. DOI: 10.5194/amt-7-689-2014
38. Yoo Seong-Jae, Kwon Hong-Beom, Hong Ui-Seon, Kang Dong-Hyun, Lee Sang-Myun, Han Jang-seop, Hwang Jungho, Kim Yong-Jun. Microelectro-mechanical-system-based condensation particle counter for real-time monitoring of airborne ultrafine particles. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 2019, vol. 12, no. 10, pp. 5335-5345. DOI: 10.5194/amt-12-5335-2019
39. Kwon Hong-Beom, Song Woo-Young, Lee Tae Hoon, Lee Seung-Soo, Kim Yong-Jun. Monitoring the effective density of airborne nanoparticles in real time using a microfluidic nanoparticle analysis chip. ACS Sensors, 2021, vol. 6, pp. 137-147.
DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01986
40. Voldman J. Electrical forces for microscale cell manipulation. Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering,, 2006, no. 8, pp. 425-454.
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.bioeng.8.061505.095739
41. Pesch G.R., Du F. A review of dielectropho-retic separation and classification of non-biological particles. Electrophoresis, 2020, vol. 42, no. 1-2, pp. 1-19.
DOI: 10.1002/elps.202000137
42. Mukhurov M., Khodin A. Means and methods to control the air ambient dust in residential and public buildings. In: Scientific and Technical Progress in Housing and Communal services. III International Scientific and Practical Conference. Minsk, October 7-8, 2021. Proc. Chapter 2, pp. 151-159 (in Russian).
