CC BY
9УДК 355 DOI 10.25257/FE.2018.1.89-95
Monika NOVAKY
Institute of Disaster Management, National University of Public Service, Budapesht, Hungary E-mail: novaky.monika@uni-nke.hu
Lajos KATAI-URBAN
Doctor of Philosophy in Military Sciences, Associate Professor Institute of Emergencies at the National University of Civil Service, Budapesht, Hungary E-mail: katai.lajos@uni-nke.hu
DEVELOPMENT OF CIVIL PROTECTION IN HUNGARY
The authors of this article analyse the history of civil protection organisation activities in Hungarian Disaster Management. Key words: population protection, air defence, disaster management, civil protection, security.
n the history of the Hungarian civil protection, the Geneva Conventions created the possibility for volunteers and their organisations to take part in the protection of civilians in times of peace and war and in special legal orders due to differentiated trainings.
Possibilities were and still are tailor made for specific age groups, sex and qualifications. In recent decades, geopolitical, economic, and environmental changes have had a significant impact on population protection tasks and their renewal which developed the current system of civil protection.
DEFENSE AND SECURITY
Protection against disasters and the desire for security is as old as mankind. Cavemen resided in caves for safety and protection against the extremes of weather and wild animals and in the absence of a permanent home, they primarily settled down on areas rich in water and food, enough for their subsistence. The ethnic groups and families lived in small communities and groups, a long distance away from each other, so natural disasters - earthquakes, fires caused by lightning, floods - did not affect a lot of people [1].
As early as the Roman times, stone houses were built to avoid lightning fires and canals were constructed against flooding. However, roofs were made of wood and straw and the densely built houses were quickly destroyed by fire. On the model of the legions, Emperor Augustus set up an independent fire-fighting organisation in Rome in 21 BC [2].
Besides natural disasters and epidemics, the most destructive human activity is warfare leading to significant social and economic catastrophes. At first, the civilian population kept watching and fleeing to defend themselves. In World War I, civil defense rose to a new level with the deployment of aircraft. In order to protect
the hinterland, the civilians were prepared and trained for rescue from under debris, first aid basics, watch and warning units were organised and blackouts were imposed [1]. Aircraft became one of the most important tools of war and determined civil protection duties for long decades [3].
To avoid the effects on of citizens' lives and property, organised administrative and preventive actions are essential, along with relying on international relations and volunteering.
For the individual, safety denotes a state in which social relations, economic characteristics are undisturbed to exert their effects on the individual, and he is not exposed to direct forensic risk. The safety of the individual cannot be separated from the social, political, economic, military and public safety. Through the safety of one individual, we can get to the safety of communities and, eventually, to the safety of mankind and the Earth's ecosystem [4].
FROM AIR DEFENSE TO CIVIL PROTECTION
After World War I, the Hungarian Air Raid Defense - the predecessor of Civil Protection -was created by Act XII of 1935 on Air Raid Defense (hereinafter referred to as the Air Defense Act) [5]. In accordance with the implementing regulation of the Air Defense Act issued by the Hungarian Royal Minister of Defense (Decree no. 17.176. 15-1936), the Minister of Defense was in charge of organising and managing the civilian aspect of Air Raid Defense, through the National Air Raid Defense Commander [6]. The Air Raid Defense League (hereinafter referred to as the League) was established along these lines, in order to organise self-protection activities of the population. Based on it, in addition to the compulsory air raid defense duties
© Monika Novaky, Lajos Katai-Urban, 2018
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imposed on the Hungarian citizens between the age of 14 and 60, volunteers were welcome to take part in defense activities [7]. Based on Act II of 1939 on National Defense, air defense duties were also imposed on individuals who had national defense duties, including women under the age of 16 and individuals and volunteers under the age of 42 in time of peace [8]. The League was founded as a social organization at a solemn ceremony in Budapest on 5 December, 1937. Its President Field Marshal Archduke Joseph August of the Habsburg-Lorraine House, held this post from 1937 to 1944. He was also President of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences [9].
Citizen preparation and training began, as a part of which primary and secondary school textbooks on air raid defense were published in 1937. They prepared students for managing alerts, and then in 1938 the previously optional training was added to the mandatory school curriculum.
In 1939, within the national framework of the League, preparations were made by the National Police Commissioner in the capital, the county police commissioners, the mayors in the towns with county's rights, and by police stations and public notaries in other settlements. Their task was to organize and manage the local groups of the League, to develop the local air raid defense plan, to train and equip those serving on duty, to enforce compliance with the rules on air raid defense, fire and gas defense. They were in charge of air defense auxiliary squadrons, which were trained to support official bodies, the police, fire service and ambulance services in their tasks related to air raid defense.
The squadrons consisted of police assistants, assistant firefighters, men and women with qualifications in gas protection, medicine, air raid defense and technical repair. Those doing their air raid service were preferably employed in positions in line with their civil qualifications, thus reducing the duration of their retraining. The purpose of air raid defense was to prepare the civilian population for the steps to be taken in case of airstrikes, how to protect human lives, industrial, infrastructural and cultural values during bombings and how to perform subsequent cleanup operations. In Hungary, these tasks were carried out by the League under the direction of the Ministry of Defense, supervised by the Ministry of the Interior. The civilians' preparation for self-protection started in 1939 on exercises organized by the League, where those doing their air defense service could also practice their duties.
The smallest unit of the organization for air raid defense was the house community, e. i. the residents of a block of flats, thus solidarity and cooperation were encouraged among families living in the same building. In blocks of flats, voluntary air raid teams were formed and their work was coordinated with other teams. It resulted in an effective, self-organised air raid defense movement, whose members were dedicated and well-trained volunteers and professionals. Separate air defense groups were formed in factories, industrial plants and on the railways.
After the German occupation, Hungary became a theatre of war and the importance of the official Hungarian air defense and air defense units increased due to the large-scale Anglo-Saxon and Soviet bombings. After the Arrow Cross Party (The Hungarian Nazi party) takeover, the official air raid defense was terminated, the League was sidelined and gradually weakened, so it could only rely on its own resources. The Hungarian air force and the bodies involved indirectly in the national air defense were placed under the German air force stationed in Hungary.
After the front line passed through Budapest, the Hungarian air defense lost its mission once the war came to an end. The remaining population of Budapest moved down to the air raid cellars of buildings, so after a while air raid warnings only affected the major remaining establishments [10].
The Hungarian air defense was high-quality even compared with European standards (almost up to the level of its British and German counterparts). It is due to its public awareness activities, its active work as well as the sensible behaviour of the population that the toll was around 15,500 in Hungary, out of which 6,500 in Budapest as a result of the bombings between April 1944 and April 1945 [11]. In comparison with neighbouring countries, it is a substantially lower figure [10].
In 1945 the League was terminated and when it was reestablished, it was not a voluntary, non-governmental organisation. In October 1948 the Political Committee of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party decided that air raid defense was to be transformed into civil protection.
After World War II, protection against air raids carried out by the so-called conventional weapons and nuclear threats came to the foreground. From the 1950s onwards, defense against air attacks was complemented with protection against natural disasters but the main emphasis was put on the protection against nuclear, biological and chemical attacks [12].
The Geneva Convention on the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War signed on 12 August 1949 was ratified in Edict 32 of 1954 in Hungary [13]. Additional Protocols I and II to the Geneva Conventions were ratified in Edict 20 of 1989 (hereinafter referred to as Edict), which describes civil protection as philanthropic tasks that aims to protect the civilian population from the impacts of conflicts and disasters and also to provide the conditions for survival. Restoration of disaster-affected areas was also added to the tasks of civil protection [14].
Re-establishing air raid defense primarily meant that the training of personnel of air defense units and employees of production plants was launched. Training of the broader population only took place in the 1960s, based on the Soviet method, thus ignoring the proven experience of the League [3].
As a result of the cold war following the 1961 Berlin and the 1962 Cuban crises, air raid defense was transferred to the Ministry of Defense together with military development. Based on the 29 January 1964 Amendment to Act IV of 1960 on national defense
(hereinafter referred to as National Defense Act), civil protection duties replaced civilians' air defense ones. The armed forces took over the tasks of cooperation in civil protection duties as well as assistance in case of natural disasters or other public emergencies [15].
According to the National Defense Act, the purpose of civil protection in case of air raids in Hungary is to organise the public administration and societal dimensions of defense, to prepare the population for air raids and to reduce the impact of air raids. The Act is for those who is bound for civil protection service and the cases of exemptions. Civil protection was managed and directed by the minister of defense through the National Directorate of Civil Protection, which relied on its state administrative bodies [15]. Civil protection preparedness focused on the principles and methods of protection against nuclear weapons and on planning and performing post-nuclear disaster rescue, relief and recovery works [16].
The 1970 Tisza flood drew attention to the importance of protection against natural and man-made disasters.
Civil protection preparedness can only be effective if the government, state and national leadership involves voluntary and non-governmental organizations as well, similarly to the Air Defense League between 1937 and 1945 [17].
In January 1972, the Hinterland Protection Headquarters (hereinafter referred to as HQ) was formed, which took over all the military organizations of civil protection, with the exception of bodies in the capital, counties, capital districts, cities, regions and the warehouses. The involvement of the HQ obviously necessitated reviewing the authorities and responsibilities. Civil protection, its purpose, place, role and duties had to be redefined within the national defense system, together with its development areas and financial matters. The legal framework was provided by Resolution 2041/1974 (XII. 11) of the Cabinet on civil protection [18]. The military engineering corps became subordinated to the HQ, so in line with the international standards, civil protection consisted of the population, self-protection and specialist organizations in addition to the low number of professional personnel - of about a few hundreds [19].
The 1976 Amendment to the National Defense Act introduced the capital, district and county national defense committees and the county, regional and local defense committees [20].
According to Act I of 1976 on National Defense (hereinafter referred to as ND Act) armed forces had to cooperate in civil protection duties as well as give assistance in case of natural disasters or other emergencies. Law enforcement bodies (police, workers' militia, penitentiary police) participate in implementing civil protection tasks [20]. The tasks of civil protection organizations (state administrative and plant organizations) are to prepare the citizens and the area to counter the effects of offensive weapons and to participate in certain special measures [20].
CIVIL PROTECTION TODAY
After the 1980s, protection against natural and industrial disasters received more emphasis, to which the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident drew more attention. Civil protection should provide protection to the population not only in times of armed conflicts, but it also has to meet the challenges in times of peace.
Based on the definitions given in the Additional Protocol to Geneva Conventions I and II, civil protection organisations are organisations that were created exclusively for civil protection purposes [14]. Accordingly, in 1990 civil protection was moved from the Ministry of Defense to the Ministry of Interior, keeping its duties, with the main emphasis on preparing for and protecting against disasters.
The amendment of Act CX of 1993 on national defens (hereinafter referred to as Defense Act) transferred the civil protection tasks to the Ministry of Interior, and the National Headquarters of Civil Protection was integrated into the National Headquarters of Fire and Civil Protection, Ministry of Interior.
Act XXXVII of 1996 on civil protection entered into force in June 1996 (hereinafter referred to as CP Act), which contained the operational bylaws of the National Headquarters of Civil Protection and its regional and local organs [21]. According to the unofficial justification of the law, the legislative background for civil protection, that is, Additional Protocols I and II to the 1949 Geneva Conventions that were ratified in Edict 20 of 1989, the new concept of safety introduced in Parliament Resolution 27/1993 (IV. 23) on the basic principles of national defense in Hungary and the changes in public administration and economy all required the renewal of the legislative background of civil protection [22].
Civil protection is responsible for protecting the population, providing the conditions for survival and preparing the citizens for overcoming their effects and creating the conditions for staying alive in the event of an armed conflict, a disaster and other emergencies. The definition of disaster was first laid out in the CP Act as a situation that threatens or damages human life, health, property, the basic supplies of the population or the environment to an extent that it requires cooperation of authorities, institutions and organisations to prevent or eliminate it [21].
Act LXXIV of 1999 on Management and Organization of the Protection from Disasters and the Prevention of Major Accidents involving hazardous substances entered into force on 1 January 2000. The goal of creating a more efficient emergency response system was to regulate how public authorities at all levels manage response to industrial or natural disasters. To increase effectiveness, the law authorized the Government to mobilise civil protection organizations within the framework of the CP Act in disaster-affected areas and to prescribe civil protection service as provided by the Defense Act.
It is essential that without changing the legal status of professional municipal fire departments, it provides the legal basis for creating a unified law enforcement body at the national and county level on the base of the civil protection and the professional fire service to coordinate and perform disaster management-related tasks - under the supervision of the Minister of the Interior. On 1 January 2000 the National Directorate General for Disaster Management, Ministry of the Interior was established, as the legal successor of the National Fire Brigade Headquarters and the National Civil Defense Headquarters [23].
The basic tasks of the newly formed professional disaster management organization were population protection, human life and property protection, which meant the vulnerability assessment of settlements, keeping record of shelters, tasks related to evacuation and sheltering, public preparedness and information [23].
The decade-long experience with the organization, the increasing number of natural and industrial disasters and extreme emergencies all called for the renewal of the organization and its adaptation to new situations.
In accordance with the Fundamental Law of Hungary, Act CXXVIII of 2011 concerning disaster management and amending certain related acts (hereinafter referred to as Disaster Management Law) ensured the safety of the citizens of Hungary and their property as well as the country's continuous viability by clarifying the system of qualified periods and special measures to be taken upon a disaster [24].
The Disaster Management Act created an integrated disaster management system, comprising of industrial safety, fire and civil protection. They do not work separately, but their activities interact with each other. Activities undertaken by authority are also centrally coordinated. Local and regional authority activities are supervised by a separate unit of the National Directorate General for Disaster Management, Ministry of the Interior [25].
Civil protection is a system of public tasks, instruments and measures, their aim is to protect the population, to ensure the conditions for survival and
to get the population prepared for overcoming the effects in the event of a disaster or armed conflict. By the Disaster Management Act, individuals over the age of 18 have civil protection duties, unless they are exempted [25]. Civil protection duties are supplemented with volunteering. Volunteering is an activity that is performed individually or in groups, regularly or occasionally, inland or abroad for the common good without any financial reward [26].
The Government Decree on the introduction of the National Curriculum signals the growing importance of taking responsibility for others, volunteering and voluntary activities for the wider environment. Community service and the basics of disaster management and national defense are included in the curriculum of secondary education [27].
The law on national public education promotes youth involvement in volunteering by setting 50 hours of community service as a prerequisite for school-leaving exams. Community service is an organised individual or group activity without any financial reward for the benefit of the society, environment or the local community as well as its educational process [28].
During the past decades, the protection of citizens has undergone great changes, from the people migrating to escape natural disasters and wars through the population protection measures and the related organisations such as the Air Defense League to counter air raids in wars to the integration of civil protection into the system of disaster management. The perception of security by public is constantly changing, which is greatly influenced by natural and man-made disasters, wars, economic and political changes and crises. The task of civil protection has become the protection of life and property as well as preparation and preparedness for armed conflicts, disasters and other emergencies [29].
In order to meet today's challenges, disaster management has become a national matter. Civil protection has become part of a unified disaster management system, strengthening its role and functions within the National Directorate General for Disaster Management, Ministry of the Interior of Hungary.
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Материал поступил в редакцию 29 июня 2017 года.
Моника НОВАКИ
Институт чрезвычайных ситуаций
при Национальном университете государственной службы,
Будапешт, Венгрия
E-mail: novaky.monika@uni-nke.hu
Лайош КАТАИ-УРБАН
Кандидат военно-технических наук, доцент
Институт чрезвычайных ситуаций
при Национальном университете государственной службы,
Будапешт, Венгрия
E-mail: katai.lajos@uni-nke.hu
РАЗВИТИЕ ГРАЖДАНСКОЙ ОБОРОНЫ И ЗАЩИТЫ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ В ВЕНГРИИ
АННОТАЦИЯ
Тема. В настоящей статье авторы анализируют весь исторический опыт развития гражданской защиты и населения при ликвидации последствий стихийных бедствий в Венгрии.
Методы исследования. В процессе исследования авторами статьи производился исторический анализ венгерского законодательства в области гражданской обороны, при этом особенное внимание уделялось структуре законодательных актов и профессиональным задачам, отражаемым в нормативной документации.
Результаты. В 1935 году был подписан документ об образовании Военно-воздушных сил Венгрии, и некоторые задачи во время Первой Мировой войны в области гражданской обороны и защиты населения были возложены на Военно-воздушные силы Венгрии. Авторы статьи отмечают, что в течение последних десятилетий широко использовался комплекс мероприятий в области гражданской обороны и защиты населения при борьбе и ликвидации последствий стихийных бедствий в Венгрии.
Область применения результатов. Материал, изложенный в статье, может быть использован при подготовке программ обучения для высших учебных заведений, занимающихся подготовкой специалистов в области гражданской обороны и защиты населения при ликвидации чрезвычайных ситуаций и стихийных бедствий.
Выводы. Особенности развития, структура организации и область использования комплекса мероприятий по гражданской обороне и защите населения территорий при ликвидации чрезвычайных ситуаций и стихийных бедствий зависит от многих факторов: геополитической, экономической и экологической ситуации страны, структуры и организации государства, а также от того, насколько уязвимо государство при борьбе со стихийными бедствиями.
Ключевые слова: защита населения, противовоздушная оборона, борьба со стихийными бедствиями, гражданская защита, безопасность.
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