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12
ЯЗЫК И КУЛЬТУРА
Чжао Юй-шэнь*
Вклад русских синологов в сохранение особенностей китайского языка поздней Цин: на примере словарей Попова и Палладия (Кафарова)
АННОТАЦИЯ: Архимандрит Палладий (П.И. Кафаров) и П.С. Попов входят в число знаменитых российских синологов, сумевших письменно зафиксировать пекинский диалект китайского языка в конце XIX века. Пекинскому диалекту свойственно две характеристики. Одна из них характеризует его как общепринятый китайский язык, зафиксированный Палладием и П. С. Поповым в «Китайско-русском словаре», увидевшем свет в 1888 году. Другая особенность заключается в том, что пекинский диалект рассматривался как местная форма речи, записанная П.С. Поповым и отражённая в его «Русско-китайском словаре» 1900 г. Таким образом, в двух словарях показываются разные аспекты применения китайского языка. Палладий задумал свой словарь для того, чтобы русскоговорящие смогли читать китайскую классическую литературу, поскольку в его словаре много слов из древнекитайского языка. П.С. Попов выпустил свой словарь, чтобы предоставить торговцам возможность пользоваться книгой для ежедневного применения — в его словаре имеется множество фраз и идиом из пекинского диалекта. В приложении составитель привёл большое количество собранных им торговых терминов и документов. Несмотря на то, что цели словарей были разными, они фокусировались на одном и том же объекте — китайском языке.
КЛЮЧЕВЫЕ СЛОВА: лексикография, разговорный язык, синоним, Палладий, Попов.
* Чжао Юй-шэнь , магистр, Государственный университет
Чжэнчжи, Тайбэй, Тайвань.
© Чжао Юй-шэнь, 2018
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1. Background
1.1. Bibliography
P.I. Kafarov (Пётр Иванович Кафаров, 1818-1878) was a Russian ministry known by his monastic name Palladius (Архимандрит Палладий). His last and the most popular book was his "Chinese-Russian Dictionary" (ЩШ^МиМШ). Its Chinese characters were ranked by Russian alphabets, which were used for spelling Chinese syllable. Each Chinese character had one to several explanations in Russian, along with several Chinese words (terms) containing the listed Chinese character.1
To give a good and short glance, Chen (2006) was the first article that I have seen to integrate the whole Dictionary in a detailed historical view. First, he described the history of compilation, supplement and publishing of the Dictionary. Then he pointed out the possible references during Palladius' working period. Then he showed the Russian-based Chinese spelling system according to the Dictionary. Finally, he described the content of the Dictionary. From this paper we learn its value and meaning in Chinese language studies. Since it was a huge dictionary, there were some exceptions from Chen's conclusion. But it does not influence the value of the dictionary. Rather, we can research the dictionary in more detailed way to sort out his idea of integration.
For linguistics research, phonology was the main topic. Shi (2014) had summarized and discussed Chinese syllable from Russian spelling, and listed some examples of several topics, like Enter-tone characters (A®^) and Literary and colloquial readings (^Й^Щ). He observed Russian spelling and gave a very objective glance of the phonology. Chao (2015) turned to analyze its phonology in a comparative linguistics view, and compared the dictionary with different Chinese phonological documents and many western records of Chinese language. Those were mainly focused on phonology. In this paper I tried to go further in word research.
P.S. Popov (Павел Степанович Попов, 1842-1913) was a translator of diplomatic corps and later became professor in University of Saint-Petersburg2. His "Russian-Chinese Dictionary" (ШЩ^М^М^ Й) was ranked by Russian alphabets; each Russian word were referred to one to several Chinese words, and always carried Chinese spelling using Russian alphabets, just like in Palladius (1888). But furthermore, Popov's spelling had more information, i.e. stress (or the emphasis part of the
1 Its layout, including ranking of Chinese tones, words and Russian spelling. (Chao 2015:25-34).
2 Popova (2012:164).
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word, with italic type)3. Its appendix was useful to businessmen or travelers to access Chinese politics and society. There was a word list as supplementary, containing daily words, names of continents, names of nations, names of capital cities, names of trading ports in China, names of trading cities between China and Russia, names of trading ports of China, Russian, Japan and Korea, names of provinces of China, names of provincial capitals of China. After the word list, he gave some examples of commercial documents (in Chinese and in Russian, separated), and a table of customs tax rate of commodities. By the appendix we can conclude that this book was for business and traveling.
Since two different-style dictionaries referred to mostly the same language entity, they could be compared and developed amount of knowledge. By the comparison, we are able to see the complete language reality in late 19th century, and conclude their historical status and value.
1.2. Method and Boundaries
I will mainly describe and compare the corpus in two views: Chinese and Russian. Chinese language has quite different forms. That is, classical one and vernacular one. The former is usually called "Wen-yan" (^W) while the latter is usually called "Bai-hua" (SIS) in Chinese. Actually, the boundary between two of them is not very absolute. Each of them had special presentations, including characters, words and phrases. So, in the first part I will concentrate on presentation of Chinese language records, and see their Russian explanations for interpretation.
In the second part I will focus on "synonyms" in two different dictionaries. Russian explanation might be the key to definition of Chinese words. Due to explanations might be sentences, difficult to search in a "dictionary", so in my progress I would pick up explanations that were printed as a "word" form, and that word would be the key, and would be looked up in another dictionary.
2. In Chinese view: Various Aspects of Language
Peking language is very special. For the one side, "reading and classical" aspect, or "Guan-hua" (TTIS), has become Mandarin Chinese (common Chinese, lingua franca) and it was used in official circles, education, examination and normal business. For the other side, "oral and
3 For example, TaH-p-c»o (p. 348), H®aH-OTO-Mao-gbi -ftT^W
(p. 198). For the first word, the alphabet "a" is italic type. For the second word, the alphabet "a" is italic type. It is a mark, but the exact meaning is not clear. Maybe it is the mark of stress, and maybe it is the mark of emphasis.
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local speech" aspect, or called "Bai-hua" or "Tu-hua" (isS), is in daily use. This language has two sides.
2.1. Classical Chinese
In Palladius (1888) there was amount of rarely used and rarely seen characters, almost seen in ancient books and seldom used in late-Qing dynasty, or just used in writing articles or poems. And some rare characters had no examples of multi-syllable word. For example:
(1) ® Усердствовать (^ 281).
[Be zealous].
(2) f Название рыбы (± 491).
[A name of fish].
(3) Ш Летать (T 559).
[To fly].
These characters were rarely used, and the explanation was simple, but it is enough for reading classical literature.
Then I would like to show another aspect called "allusions" (ЛЙ). Mostly we (modern Chinese students) regard those allusions as story-based phrases and quotations from classics. In Palladius (1888) we can see a large amount of allusions, except basic words. Here are some examples.
(4) ЖМ
«Ворота перед кладбищем, вход на кладбище» (T 409).
«Врата пред могилою. Врата. Здание без стен» (T 132).
[Gate in front of the cemetery, entrance to the cemetery].
[The gate to the grave. The gate. The building without walls].
(5) sm+M
«В пять дней раз ветер и десять дней раз дождь, вожделенная погода» (T 82).
[It winds in five days and rains in ten days, coveted weather].
(6)
«Снег» (T 125).
[Snow].
These allusions were from classics or literature. "ЖМ" means path or the gate to the grave, originally from "Zuo-zhuan" Commentary
of Zuo)4. "SM+M" means good weather that is looked forward, origi-
4 Original text was: ШШ®, MSfftH^
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nally written in "Lun-Heng" (ШШ, Discourse balance)5. And the term "^ЖЖ" means snow. It was a literature allusion6. Those sources were from classics or literature.
Besides, in Palladius (1888) there were several idioms and short sentences that were from classics. Such as:
(7) ШХШШ
«(Ши-цзин). Не город в сношениях» (^ 9).
[(Shi-jing). Not a city in intercourse].
(8) ^ад^т^та*
«Собаки лают и никто не тревожится, ноги обросли волосами (от бездействия); спокойствие и безопасность» (^ 101).
[Dogs bark and no one is worried, legs are overgrown with hair (from inaction); Peace and security].
(9) W^eW^
«Нельзя быть свёкром и свекровью, не прикидываясь глупыми и не глухими» (^ 103).
[You can not be a father-in-law and mother-in-law without pretending to be stupid and not deaf].
(10)
«Благодеяния его безкорыстны и подвигами он успокоил Империю (9 провинций)» (Т 50).
His benevolence is unselfish and his exploits soothed the Empire (9 provinces).
For example (7), according to the explanation this word (or phrase) was from "Shi-jing", but actually the character "X" was not correct, instead there should be So the complete phrase might be not "«Ш"7. For example (8), "Ш^Ш^Т«", originally from "Hou-han-shu", and it was the record of a song that praised the prefecture chief8. For example (9), "^Й^в^^^Й" originally meant
5 Original text was: M^TO. + B^ffio " (-?!•
^E» ). In poem, there was a similar usage: "iM+ffi X
6 Original text was: " (^¿.f^
, or t^ffi , not sure). In novels, this term
was popular used, such as "Xi-you-ji"(Journey to the West): "^BSffi,
Mo rns&ffi, '\mrn.m, xn^^rnm. ^
nnmM; ttftfio s^^so".
7 Originally text "M^M, sMfi^o ffi^ffi^, ^g^o " (M-h
m-mm.
8 Originally text MA^S:
^"(mmm-mm»).
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that elders were good if he or she acted stupidly so that could forgive the young. It had been an idiom, but became a classical allusion9. For example (10), 'tg^Hl^^^W' was a condensed sentence. "Hi" was about unselfishness of the sky, the earth and the sun-moon. "^W' meant nine provinces of China. The whole sentence meant a person that is very unselfish and his contribution covers the whole empire10.
Allusions could be mainly found from Thirteen Classics (&S), Historical Records Books of Thoughts (—) and Literature works (ft). From those sources we can see how abundant allusion were collected in Palladius (1888).
2.2. Vernacular Chinese
Chinese character has its "vitality" that users are able to create characters to record new or local words. That would usually be called dialect characters or dialect words. In Palladius (1888) and Popov (1900), we can see many examples. But in Palladius (1888) colloquialisms were much less than in Popov (1900).
For dialect characters, both Palladius (1888) and Popov (1900) had it. Here are some examples.
(11) №
This character might be a local character, standing for the meaning "to doze off" or "to take a nap". Two dictionaries collected this character and gave word examples.
Задремать (Popov, p. 184).
[To doze off].
iT№ Вздремнуть (Palladius, ± 196).
[To take a nap].
Дремать и спать (Palladius, i 196).
[To doze and to sleep].
9 There were several similar texts. "E^MSM, MPIT^^^m, ^^
«¿go wmm: ^«m ^rn^xmrn*" (
A» «). It could also be
(the front two ones were from while the last one was from "g^SS- +H").
10 The original text was from an enlightenment book to children. "H*" means originally from «iHB- ?L iMS» . The term "AW means "AW", the whole China empire.
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We can see such examples used in northern novel like "Dream of the Red Chamber" (Щ.ШЩи or "Journey to the West" (ШЩйУ2. And concerning the word "№iR" is probably from the phrase which could be traced back in Yuan-qu (ХЙ), also northern literature works13.
(12) P|
This is a famous dialect character, usually used as first person plural. In many novels we can see this character along with its term "Btffl". In both dictionaries we can see their explanations:
niffl Мы (Popov, p. 318).
[we].
Мы, простореч. (Palladius, i 69, belonging to character "&").
[We, simple].
ШР5 Мы (свои) (Palladius, i 423, belonging to character
[We (speakers themselves)].
"Iffl Мы (все вместе) (Palladius, i 423, belonging to character "ffl").
[we (all together)].
Мы (Palladius, T 160, belonging to character "P|").
[we].
In many northern novels we can see such context14. And also it is often used in daily life.
(13) ш
This character was not popular in literature, but popular in local Peking drama, "Xiang-sheng" (ffi®).
ЖШ^ НЙ Паяц. (Popov, p. 442).
[clown].
11 Texts such as "RBMMYffi, ^mMM, SPfiTOo "
wmm^mmnm'
12 Texts such as "F^IM, o "
13 Original text ^
mf^ j rfB&w mm^ «Mffi-mro»).
14 Like in the novel "The Scholars" literally "The Unofficial History of the Forest"): "^ffi^» mftfltimfilMM^, ^MftW^A, Hifffto ". In novel "Golden Lotus" "flffl^H^SS^? ".
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нй Трудом выговаривать. Извращённый; непокорный. (Palladius, ± 146).
[Difficult to pronounce. Perverted; disobedient].
Besides, dialect words and phrases are another aspect. In Popov (1900) there was much more than Palladius (1888). And that became the big difference from Palladius (1888).
(14) mm
Мусор (Popov, p. 316). [garbage].
(15) wm?, ш-?, ш.%
Потерпеть фиаско (Popov, p. 772). [To suffer a fiasco].
(16) MM, Заикаться (Popov, p. 186). [Stutter].
Those words and phrases were very vivid. And of course, some of them were difficult to articulate by each character, because dialect usage might be established by common usage.
And concerning "oral sentences", there were lots of examples in Popov's dictionary.
(17) -тшщ-м
Что город, то норов (Popov, p. 373, under the term Норов:
Ш, Ш).
[Every city has its habit].
(18) тшмжшя
Лучше умереть с голоду нежели сделаться вором (Popov, p. 352, under the term Нежели: ЙЙ).
[Better to die in hunger than to become a thief].
(19) Ш7МШШ
Отделав это, примусь за другое. (Popov, p. 421, under the term Отделывать: Wff, ЖШ).
[Having completed this, I shall take over another].
In Palladius (1888), there were still several local-style phrases. Those examples were quite different from those we mentioned before.
(20) ШШ7
Ошалеть от жара (Т 149). [To be wild with heat].
(21)
Разойтись всем. (Т 268). [Disperse, everybody].
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Невозможно принять на себя решение чего (Т 422).
[It is impossible to take it upon oneself to do something].
(23) шт
Нанести обиду, напраслину (^ 72).
[Inflict injury, vain slander].
(24) Ш7&
Потерять дорогу (^ 398).
[To lose the way].
(25) 17
Кончено! Плохо! Знак одобрения, сожаления, разочарования (^ 11).
[It's over! Bad! A sign of approval, regret, disappointment].
Those examples were quite different from classical Chinese. Maybe for Palladius, these phrases might be useful in reading local literature.
2.3. Others
Some words are difficult to be traced back to any documents. And that might be very interesting because they were surely recorded. Take this word as example.
(26) -Ш
В 7500 лет (Palladius, ± 51).
[In 7500 years].
If we do research more and more, maybe we can solve the origin of the word.
3. In Russian view: Comparison from synonym observation
Here I will pick up words related to the same or similar meaning in Russian. That is to say, I will present how Palladius (1888) and Popov (1900) recorded Chinese words of the same Russian meaning.
Take "pomegranate" (гранат) as example. Pomegranate is a common fruit. If we check the records in dictionaries we see the situation below:
(27) "Pomegranate" (гранат)
Ра1Ы1ш Popov
ЪШ гранат [± 367] гранат [126]
гранат корейский (из Ринь-ло) [^ 367]
ШШ гранат [± 367]
Ж^ преподнести гранат [^ 367]
АШ сок сладких гранатов [Т 274]
гранаты [^ 216]
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гранат [± 365]
гранатовые деревья [^ 331]
н ^ Я гранатовый сок, опьяняющий внутренних демонов [Т 243]
Н+Л гранат (по числу зёрен) [^ 501]
граната [± 253]
In Palladius (1888), the core meaning «гранат» referred to at least four Chinese words. Other Chinese words referred to «гранат» too, but modifier included. At least we know Palladius (1888) recorded several Chinese words that meant «гранат», and most of them could be traced back to historical documents or literature15. For Popov, there was only one Chinese word referred to «гранат». In this case, Chinese word '"Й 1Ш" was both recorded in two dictionaries. It might be the most common word in Chinese.
Then we come to another situation, both Chinese and Russian have synonyms. Take "nightfall" (сумерки/ вечер) as example:
(28) "Nightfall" (сумерки/ вечер)
Palladius Popov
сумерки [Т 131] сумерки ЩЩ, [701]
сумерки [Т 148] вечер ШМ%, ЩЩ, ШШ, ШШ [56]
^М сумерки [Т 152]
Й В$ вечерняя темнота, сумерки [Т 142]
^^ к вечеру [^ 37]
^^ закат солнца, старость [ ^ 415]
Ш вечер [± 66]
вечер; вечером [^ 66]
15 "!É#" (tu lin), originally from Lu Ji (№ffi)'s article "A letter to brother Yun" quoted by "Yi-wen Lei-ju" Collection of Litera-
ture Arranged by Categories): ".
"f^" (ro liu), originally from Zhang Heng (^W)'s article "Fu of Southern Capital" (MP«): "fê^f®, ".
" A^" (tian jiang), "h^M" (san shi jiu) and "flf " (dan ro), originally from a novel collection "You Yang Za Zu" (SHIffi):
"Mmmmm^mm, "
"h+A" (san shi ba), originally from "Suo-sui Lu"
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In Popov's record, and were the same explanation of
«сумерки» and «вечер». In Palladius' record, was «сумерки» but no record of The case of and would probably be in
literature.
In Popov's record, we could make inference that was a lo-
cal word in Peking, not common in Mandarin. Lao-she was a fa-
mous author of northern local novel. In his novel "biography of Niu Tian Si" there was the term and by the context its meaning was almost the same to nightfall: "^ШШХШШ^Ш
From these cases, we can conclude that Popov's dictionary was closer to local Peking dialect.
The following examples are further synonyms with the same Russian explanation:
(29) Плут. [Knave.]
(Palladius, ± 37).
Mfe Mi (Popov, p. 468).
(30) Побрататься. [fraternize.]
(Palladius, T 233).
ШЙ (Popov, p. 464).
(31) Слон. [Elephant.]
(Palladius, ± 292).17
Ж (Palladius, ± 589).
Ж (Popov, p. 653).
Based on Chinese reading sense, we can also see that classical and oral forms were different. Palladius (1888) was much closer to ancient and classical Chinese. And Popov (1900) was much closer to local Peking dialect.
4. Conclusion
From the examples we know the value and features of two dictionaries. In short, Palladius (1888) was mainly designed for reading Chinese classical works, and its content was almost like encyclopedia. Popov (1900) was mostly designed for speaking Chinese with local Peking people, and its content was full of local dialect. The two dictionaries are treasures of Chinese. They happened to record almost the same language object. Their value is not in recording, in keeping phonology by Russian alphabets, but also keeping the meaning of Chinese words at that period. Therefore, they are worth researching in linguistics view.
16 From Lao-she 18th.
17 Originally from Liu Jing-shu "Yi Yuan" (M^): "ШШ (
ш тшпшш, ".
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References
1. Chao Yu-shen MWff, 2015. The Study on Mandarin in Late-Qing Dynasty Recorded by Russian Sinologists — A Phonology research according to "Chinese-Russian Dictionary" (1888) [ШШШШФШМШШМХ'ШШ — U
«ШШ^МИШ» Taipei: National Chengchi University.
2. Chen Kai-ke Li Ting ^Щ, 2006. The Research on Palladius Chines-Russian Dictionary [ЕШШ-^ШШ^ «ШШ^МИШ» ШШ Ф 4:74-88.
3. Palladius P.I, Popov P.S. 1888. Chinese-Russian Dictionary [Ш^^М ИШ]. Peking: Tung-wen-kuan [^ЬЖИХШ].
4. Popov P.S. 1900. Russian-Chinese Dictionary Tokyo: San-kio-shya [ЖЖ:
5. Popova I.F. ШШШ. 2012. A Survey of Russian Chinese Studies Ш1ШШВД. ЖГУГХ^&тШШШ [East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies Supplemental], 8:157-168.
6. Shi Ru-jie 2014. Chinese phonology of 19th century in Kita-jsko-Russky slovar [ «ШШ^МИШ» 19 KGU Journal of Language and Literature [Ш^ИА^Х^- йШ^Ш^] 21(2): 1-15.
Zhao Yu-shen*
Contributions to Late-Qing Chinese records by Russian sinologists: Taking Palladius and Popov dictionaries as examples
ABSTRACT: P.I. Kafarov (Palladius) and P.S. Popov were the most important Russian Sinologists who recorded Mandarin Chinese and Peking dialect at the period of late 19th century. Peking language has two sides. The one is common-used Chinese, mainly recorded in "Chinese-Russian Dictionary", written by Palladius and revised by Popov, published in 1888. The other was dialectal and oral Chinese, mainly recorded in "Russian-Chinese Dictionary", written by Popov and published in 1900. Two dictionaries showed different aspects of Chinese. Two Sinologists recorded Chinese language not for their own academic targets, but for Russian native users. Those books provided Russian users a better, complete way to access Chinese. In short, Palladius' dictionary was designed for reading Chinese classical literature, collecting many ancient words. Popov's dictionary was designed for business and for daily use in Peking, collecting many phrases and words with local tongue. In the appendix he collected many business terms and documents. Although their purposes were different, they focused on the same object — Chinese language.
KEYWORDS: lexicography, classical, vernacular, synonyms, Palladius, Popov.
* Zhao Yu-shen MA, National Cheng-chi University, Taibei, Taiwan.
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