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226 августа по 13 августа. А 15 августа его коллега Альтгаузен сообщал Фриновскому, что 14 августа Штерну был передан текст телеграммы товарищу Ежову по вопросу дезинформации в занятии сопок Заозерная и Безымянная. Лишь начав изучать текст телеграммы, Штерн вызвал Альтгаузена на телеграф и выплеснул на него весь гнев, не гнушаясь оскорблениями. После этого он поставил вопрос об освобождении (подателя телеграммы от должности). Подытоживания чекистов подтвердились общей советско-японской комиссией на Заозерной утром двенадцатого августа, буквально через день после заключения мирного договора. Те, кто входил в состав комиссии, а в частности военные и дипломаты, принял решение, что «ввиду особого создавшегося положения в северной части гребня сопки Заозерная, которое выражается в чрезмерном сближении — до пяти метров — частей обеих сторон», необходимо прийти к следующему соглашению: «...С 20 часов 12 августа как главные силы японской армии, так и главные силы Красной армии в северной части гребня сопки Заозерная отвести назад на расстояние не ближе 80 метров от
гребня...». Обе стороны по факту вернули положение 11 августа, оставили гребень сопки как своеобразную нейтральную зону. Япония очистила советские сопки Безымянная и Пулеметная, они не претендовали на их удержание.
Список литературы
1. Гайдук H., Боевые действия у озера Хасан // Военно-исторический журнал. - М.: Наука, 2004. - С. 34 - 41.
2. Деревянко А. П., Пограничный конфликт в районе озера Хасан в 1938 г. Материалы к 60-летию Хасанских событий. - В.: Уссури, 1998. - 84 с.
3. Касахара К., Бои у озера Хасан: анализ числа и характера потерь Японии и СССР: // Российский гуманитарный журнал. - СПб.: Социально-гуманитарное знание, 2017. - С. 298-311.
4. Кириченко А.А., На далеком озере Хасан. -М.: Московская правда, 1998. - 116 с.
5. Кольтюков А.А., Вооруженный конфликт у озера Хасан. - М.: Кучково поле, 2005. - 400 с.
6. Шкадов И.Н., Озеро Хасан. Год 1938. - М.: Воениздат, 1988. - 217 с.
CONSTRUCTION OF JAPANESE NATIONAL IDENTITY DURING THE MEIJI PERIOD AND THE IMPERIAL RESCRIPT TO SOLDIERS AND SAILORS
Lapshakov G.
Master's student,
Saint-Petersburg School of Social Sciences and Area Studies, HSE University - Saint-Petersburg
Abstract
The emergence of national identity and a nation-state in Japan did not occur through the gradual evolution of institutions as it was in Europe. Japanese modernization took place through radical reforms initiated by the state. By that time, the feudal estate society, which continued to exist in Japan, had to be destroyed to achieve the country's modernization. The privileged class of samurai lost their special rights; male peasants had to serve in the army for three years. Society was not ready for these changes. Such policy needed legitimation. This article examines from this point of view a valuable source of Japanese national identity formation during the Meiji period: Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors (1882). Viscount Inoue Kowashi and the creator and chief ideologist of the Japanese army and navy, Yamagata Aritomo, developed this rescript. The document was published on behalf of Emperor Meiji. For many decades, until the defeat of Japan in World War II, all Japanese soldiers and officers studied this text. Consequently, it was one of the most significant elements of Japanese propaganda, aimed at spreading national ideology and constructing a new political identity.
Keywords: Meiji Restoration, history of Japan, national identity, political ideology, modernization.
The concept of a nation originated in the modern era. Similar political ideas existed in earlier historical periods, but in the 18-19 centuries, the formation of nation-states in Europe took place. The state begins to assert that it is the embodiment of a specific monolithic nation with a shared history and goals. Instead of disparate dialects, the nation-state began to impose a single national language. Instead of disparate feudal laws, the state-organized unified legislation. A nation-state needs a regular army and a suitable tax system. These changes become possible due to new tools for mobilizing the population, including the education system and universal attractiveness: they allowed the state to exercise direct control over a massive part of the population.
For comparison: the estate monarchies of medieval Europe did not have such an opportunity to interfere in the lives of their subjects.
However, in the 19th century, similar processes took place in a country that previously had nothing to do with Europe. Japan, which had remained isolated for a long time, was forced to begin trade with the Western powers under the threat of military force in 1853. Then Japan opened its ports to American traders and their goods [3, P. 46]. In the coming years, Japan had to open trade with Russia, France, and Great Britain. These events also undermined the shogun's power, which was already in crisis. Soon, the strongest feudal clans raised an uprising demanding the return of real power to the emperors who had lost it centuries ago in favor of the
military government of the shoguns. The rebellious dai-myo rulers realized that Japan would only resist the colonial empires by accepting their accomplishments. They showed the superiority of Western technology in the war against the shogun and daimyo, who remained loyal to him. In this war, the rebels prevailed. Thus began a new era in Japanese history: the Meiji Restoration. On the one hand, the new government relied on returning to the traditions; on the other hand, pursuing a modernization policy. The Meiji government faced the same problems as the European monarchies. The estate society of feudal Japan could not be the basis of industrial power.
As in Europe, the developing nation-state in Japan used methods of population mobilization that were innovative for that era, destroying the traditional way of life of its subjects. One of the essential tools for such mobilization was a regular army and general conscription. The new imperial army no longer included a particular class but influenced Japan's entire male population. The state becomes able to conduct severe ideological work with many people, which was necessary when creating a regular army from scratch. Meanwhile, the army's formation was essential for transforming the former feudal estates into a single nation. For the same reason, the army's construction took place while creating any centralized state of the modern era. The regular military includes people with different social and geographical origins. They must work together and observe the discipline.
Consequently, ideological work with the army had to be an essential part of Japanese policy at that time. Because of the successful creation of an army, it is necessary to solve another difficult task. People should recognize the state's right to create an army out of them and believe that they are obliged to serve it at the cost of their hardships and even their own lives. The introduction of universal military service, imposing such obligations, could not pass without the people's resistance. Earlier, a particular class of samurai warriors was associated with military service, but the government began to recruit the entire male population. Moreover, since most of the population remained peasants, they became the backbone of a new army, which sharply contradicted their usual order of things [5, P. 40]. For centuries, free from conscription due to the feudal estate system, peasants saw this as a violent invasion of their lives, to which they began to respond with riots and desertion [2, P. 254]. It was necessary to explain to them the current policy and convince them of its fairness.
Thus, the Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors, drawn up by the creator and chief ideologist of the Japanese army and navy, Yamagata Aritomo and viscount Inoue Kowashi, and published on behalf of the emperor on January 4, 1882, played a crucial role in creating the ideological foundations of the new order [1, P. 49]. Its text is larger than the others discussed in this section, and, in addition, it can be considered one of the most significant sources for studying Japan's ideology at that time. The Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors was the most crucial document for the Japanese military until World War II. All Japanese soldiers and officers had to study it. The Imperial Rescript to
Soldiers and Sailors combined the principles of bushido and the ideals of the imperial cult. The use of the ideas of bushido made it possible to consolidate the concept of a new state role for the people, inherited from the samurai class [4]. The people received the honor and strength of a samurai. That was an explanation of the universal military conscription need and increased the morale of the Japanese army.
The text itself consists of an introductory retelling of Japan's political history and five clauses. The description of the country's history from the official position of great interest. The text begins by stating that the imperial dynasty has always commanded the Japanese army. Ever since Emperor Jimmu conquered the tribes in the central part of the country over 2,500 years ago, the emperor personally led the army; sometimes, an empress or crown prince could be in his place. "But the supreme command of the troops was never entrusted to the vassals"[4]. In the Middle Ages, Japan borrowed new civil and military system principles from China. Then, enjoying a long peaceful period, the imperial court plunged into luxury and delicacy, the people independently divided into peasants and military. Then the samurai and their leaders - shoguns, monopolized the military service. They took political power in Japan for 700 years, and people could no longer return to the old foundations. At the same time, "the current situation turned into a shameful order"[4], which contradicted the original state structure and the customs of their ancestors. Things began to change towards the end of the Edo period when the shogunate started to decline and then faced entirely with the threat of invasion by foreign powers. Soon Meiji, as a child, at the behest of Amaterasu, received political power back from the shogun and then took the land and people from daimyo. Loyal vassals of the emperor played an essential role in this process, and people realized the importance of supporting the emperor. Just 15 years later, the new government created a modern army and navy to raise Japan's profile in the world. The supreme command of these troops now belongs to the emperor and not to his vassals - this is the correct order that can no longer be lost. The emperor defends the country, but he can only do so with the support of his soldiers [4]. Therefore, he provides instructions for the military in five points:
First, a military must be loyal to the country. Every solder must fully devote himself to serving Japan and the Emperor. "A soldier, who is uncertainly serving his fatherland, even if he knows science and understands art, is a worthless, empty person"[4]. The military should not interfere in politics.
Second, a military must be disciplined and ethical. The military hierarchy must be stable, but senior officers must respect juniors, especially if they are older. The soldiers must agree with each other. Deliberate violation of this discipline is subject to criminal liability.
Third, a military must be courageous. However, courage should not be meaningless and unreasonable. Courage is the fulfillment of duty, "not to be afraid of the strong and not to neglect the weak enemy "[4], to cultivate courage and prudence in oneself. The military must, with their courage, achieve the respect of the people, not disgust.
Fourth, a military must be faithful to their duty. Loyalty is the unity of thought and action. A soldier intending to do something must realize that he is taking on the right job and know that he can do it.
Fifth, a military should be restrained and straightforward. Otherwise, a soldier will become a hypocrite and effeminate, low, and rude, which means he will lose bravery and loyalty to duty. "A soldier should not get to the point where people will despise him" [4]. The military should be wary of this vice since it can spread through the army like a disease and undermine its power.
The Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors ends with a statement that the principles outlined are the spiritual foundation of the army, arising from common morality and justice and that their observance will bring happiness to the entire Japanese people.
Several essential ideas designed to legitimize the Meiji reforms took place in the text, such as the great antiquity of Japan and its imperial dynasty. The period of the shogun's rule is declared a shameful episode of Japan's long history. The text states innovations related to the nation-state's building as a return to the origins. The customs that hinder the reforms, according to the author, contrary to authentic Japanese tradition. They are associated with the shogunate, which collapsed at the behest of the deities. The military had to internalize this view and become an example for the rest of the people. At the same time, it is essential to remember that people doing military service communicated with relatives through letters and thus themselves involuntarily became agents of state ideology. Realizing this, the government even promoted creating a separate manual for the soldiers, according to which they were to write letters. Returning home after three years of service, the former soldiers came up with ideas introduced at this time and continued to live with them. Thus, the ideology presented by the state among the military has already spread in society [5, P. 45]. With the militarization of Japan and the growth of the army's and navy's authority, spreading became more and more significant [2, P. 254].
The main goal of this policy was to create a new national identity in Japan. For this, various political myths were used. These myths were supposed to develop Japan's image as a single nation that existed for thousands of years under the direct leadership of the divine emperors. The shogunate in this picture of the world is a temporary anomaly that ended rightly. It was important for the Meiji government to ensure the loyalty of its subjects in the face of reforms. It was not an easy task as the new order was breaking the people's way of life. The imperial directive to the military is a valuable historical source that shows us how the country's modernization reforms were legitimized. The Meiji government developed an ideology and propagated it through the institutions of the nation-state. The army was one of the key institutions in this process.
References
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