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138ОБЗОРНЫЕ СТАТЬИ REVIEW ARTICLES
CONSERVATION OF RARE AND THREATENED ORCHIDS OF INDIA
L.C. De
National Research Centre for Orchids, India e-mail: lakshmanchandrade@gmail.com
Orchidaceae is one of the largest families of flowering plants as well as one of the most threatened plants due to habitat destruction and climate change, but many of them are also threatened due to illegal harvesting for horticulture, cultural use, food and medicine. In this review paper, distribution of rare and threatened orchid species, trade related activities, economic importance of valuable orchid species and conservation measures are discussed in detail with a view to develop approaches that may allow us to address the threats on a broader scale to complement focused approaches for the species that are at the high risk. Key words: endemic, epiphyte, terrestrial species, ex situ conservation, in situ conservation
Introduction
Orchidaceae is one of the largest families of flowering plants (Chase et al., 2015; Willis, 2017) and are almost globally distributed. Till date, 29 199 species have been identified and accepted (Govaerts et al., 2017). By the end of 2017, the IUCN Global Red List included assessments for 948 orchid species, of which 56.5% are reported to be, threatened (IUCN, 2017). In addition to their geographical and taxonomic diversity, orchids are also widely used for a variety of reasons, both legally and illegally, sustainably and unsustainably (Fay, 2015a).
One of the well known plant groups in the global horticultural and cut flower trades (De, 2015), orchids are also harvested, grown and traded for a variety of purposes, including as ornamental plants, medicinal products and food. Most popular global orchid trade is in artificially propagated cut flowers and plants grown under controlled conditions. During the period of 1996 to 2015, Taiwan and Thailand were the largest exporters, with most plants sent to South Korea (40%), the U.S.A (27%) and Japan (20%) (UNEP-WCMC, 2017).
In India, about 1331 species belonging to 186 genera represent about 5.98% of the world orchid flora and 6.83% of the flowering plants in India. The Eastern and North Eastern Himalayas; North Western Himalayas; Peninsular India; and Andaman & Nicobar Islands are the major orchid regions of India. As many as 34 species of orchids from North East India are listed among the threatened plants of India (Nayar & Sastry, 1987, 1990; Ahmedullah & Nayar, 1999) and 85 species are endemic to this region (Das & Deori, 1983). Indian terrestrials are located in humus rich moist earth under tree shades in North Western India. Western Ghats harbour the small flowered orchids. Epiphytic orchids are common in North-Eastern India
which grown up to an elevation of 2000 MSL. Indian orchid species with high ornamental values originated from this region are Aerides multiflorum,
Aerides odoratum, Arundina graminifolia, Arachnis, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe masuca, Coelogyne elata, Coelogyne flavida, C. corymbosa; Cymbidium aloifolium, C. lowianum, C. devonianum, C. hookerianum, C. lancifolium, Dendrobium aphyllum, D. nobile, D. chrysanthum, D. farmeri, D. densiflorum, D. moschatum, D. fimbriatum, D. jenkinsii, Paphiopedilum venustum, P. spicerianum, P. hirsutissimum, P. insigne, Phaius wallichii, Pleione praecox, Renanthera imschootiana, Rhyncostylis retusa, Thunia alba, Vanda cristata, Vanda coerulea and Vanda coerulescens (Singh, 1990).
Eastern Himalayas and North-Eastern India
This region includes Darjeeling district of West Bengal and other Northeastern states, i.e., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. This region is relatively warmer with high humidity and heavier precipitation and endowed with 870 species in 159 genera constituting 72.8% of the total orchid species in this country. A state wise analysis indicates that Arunachal Pradesh has the highest number of orchid species (622) followed by Sikkim (543 species) and Meghalaya with 389 species. Among the other states of this region, Assam accounts for 290, Nagaland for 246, Mizoram for 234, Manipur for 215 and Tripura for 57 species (Hajra & De, 2010).
Endemic orchids
Orchids are distributed from tropical to alpine zones in forest trees, secondary vegetations, river banks, bamboo and palm thickets, forest floor, grassy slopes and rocky areas and are considered as an element in Farming System Research (Chowdhery, 1998, 2001). It is to be noted that there are some orchid species which are endemic not only to this region, but also to the home states in which they are distributed in Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh Himalayas, the Naga and Manipur hills, the Lusai - Mizo hills and Khasi -Jaintia hills (Nayar, 1996).
These are Dendrobium spatella, Dendrobium parciflorum and Luisia macrotis from Assam, Vanda coerulea and Dendrobium palpebrae from Arunachal Pradesh, Renanthera imschootiana and Cymbidium tigrinum from Nagaland, Anoectochilus crispus, Cymbidium eburneum, Habenaria khasiana, Liparis deliculata, Paphiopedilum venustum, Taeniophyllum khasianum and Tainia khasiana from Meghalaya, Renanthera imschootiana from Tripura, Dendrobium palpebrae from Mizoram, Ascocentrum ampullaceum var. auranticum, Epidendrum radicans and Vanda stangeana from Manipur, Calanthe whiteana, Cymbidium whiteae and Vanda pumila from Sikkim. A state wise distribution of orchid species of North Eastern states of India is listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Distribution of important orchids in North East States (Chowdhery, 2001, 2009; Nayar & Sastry, 1999; De & Medhi, 2014)_
State Orchid species
Arunachal Pradesh Cymbidium ensifolium, C. grandiflorum, Dendrobium aphylla, D. chrysanthum, D. gibsonii, D. nobile, Paphiopedilum fairrieanum, P. venustum, P. spicerianum,Calanthe masuca, Rhyncostylis retusa.
Assam Arundina graminifolia, Eulophia mannii, Goodyera procera, Calanthe angusta, Rhyncostylis retusa, Aerides multiflora, Aerides odorata, Acampe papillosa, Cymbidium aloifolium, Dendrobium aphyllum, D. acinaciforme.
Manipur Ascocentrum ampullaceum, Paphiopedilum spicerianum, Vanda amsiana, Vanda stangeana, Vanda coerulea.
Meghalaya Paphiopedilum insigne, P. venustum, R. retusa, Coelogyne corymbosa, Phaius tankervilliae, Dendrobium devonianum, Cymbidium elegans, Vanda coerulea.
Mizoram Vanda coerulea, Renanthera imschootiana, Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum,P. villosum.
Nagaland Goodyera viridiflora, Liparis caespitosa, Luisia trichorrhiza, Malaxis latifolia, Oberonia pyrulifera, Spiranthes sinensis.
Sikkim Alpine zone (2500-3000 m): Orchis,Habenaria, Tipularia, Satyrium, Cypripedium. Temperate & Sub-temperate zone (1850-3500 m): Goodyera, Calanthe, Pleione humilis, Cymbidium hookeranum, C. devonianum, C. longifolium, Coelogyne cri-stata, Dendribium hookeranum. Subtropical zone (850-1250 m): Anoectichilus, Calanthe,Phaius, Eulophia,Paphiopedilum fairrieanum, P. venustum, Dendrobium, Bulbophyllum, Coelogyne, Arachnis. Tropical Zone (250-850 m): Phalaenopsis, Dendrobium, Aerides, Vanda, Arundina graminifolia.
Tripura Dendrobium (14 spp.), Vanda teres, V. coerulea, Renanthera imschootiana.
The North East India has highest flora of monotypic orchid genera (Tandon, 2007): Anthogonium Wall. ex Lindl., Arundina Bl. Acrochaene Lindl., Bulleyia Schltr. Cremastra Lindl., Cleisocentron Bruhl Dickasonia L.O. Williams, Diglyphosa Bl. Eriodes Rolfe, Herpysma Lindl. Jejosephia A.N. Rao & Mani, Mischobulbum Schltr. Myrmechis (Lindl.) Bl., Neogyne Reichb.f. Ornithochilus (Lindl.) Wall. Ex Benth., Risleya King & Pantl. Renanthera Lour., Tipularia Nutt.
North East India is enriched with a huge number of rare orchids such as Acanthephippium sylhetense, Anoectochilus grandiflora, A. sikkimensis, Bulbophyllum leptanthum, B. moniliforme, B. triste, Calanthe alpina, C. herbacea,
C. odora, Coelogyne arunachalensis, C. nitida, C. cristata, Cymbidium cochleare, C. eburneum, C. devonianun, Dendrobium chrysotoxum, D. falconeri, D. densiflorum,
D. ochreatum, Eria crassicaulis, E. spicata, E. fragrans, Eulophia candida, E. manni, Galeola cathcarti, Habenaria khasiana, Herminium haridasanii, Liparis acuminata, Malaxis aphylla, Nervilia scottii, Oberonia clerkei, Phaius tankervilliae, Phalaenopsis mastersii, Pleione maculata, P. praecox, Tainia khasiana, Thunia marshalliana, Vandaparviflora and Zeixine longifolia (Nayar & Sastry, 1999).
India is reported to harbour ten species of valuable threatened orchids included in Appendix I of CITES and those are Paphiopedilum charlesworthii (Rolfe) Pfitzer, Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Stein, Paphiopedilum fairrieanum (Lindl.) Stein,
Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum (Lindl. ex Hook.) Stein, Paphiopedilum insigne (Wall. ex Lindl.) Pfitzer, Paphiopedilum spicerianum (Rchb.f.) Pfitzer, Paphiopedilum venustum (Wall. ex Sims) Pfitzer, Paphiopedilum villosum (Lindl.) Stein, Paphiopedilum wardii Summerh, Renanthera imschootiana Rolfe. Appendix II includes all species which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival. The entire Orchidaceae is included in Appendix II except the genara Paphiopedilum (10 spp.) and Renanthera imschootiana. Appendix II includes genera Acampe (5 species), Acanthephippium (3 species), Acriopsis (2 species), Aenhenrya (1 species), Acrochaene (1 species), Aerides (8 species), Agrostophyllum (5 species), Androcorys (6 species), Ania (2 species), Anoectochilus (6 species), Anthogonium (1 species), Aorchis (2 species), Aphyllorchis (3 species), Apostasia (3 species), Appendicula (2 species), Arachnis (2 species), Archineottia (1 species), Arundina (1 species), Armodorum (1 species), Ascocentrum (4 species), Bhutanthera (2 species), Biermannia (4 species), Bletilla (2 species), Brachycorythis (7 species), Bulbophyllum (117 species), Bulleyia (1 species), Calanthe (27 species), Cephalanthera (3 species), Cephalantheropsis (1 species), Chamaegastrodia (2 species), Ceratostylis (2 species), Cheirostylis (12 species), Chiloschista (4 species), Chrysoglossum (2 species), Chusua (5 species), Cleisocentron (1 species), Cleisostoma (20 species), Coeloglossum (1 species), Coelogyne (45 species), Collabium (2 species), Corallorhiza (1 species), Cremastra (1 species), Corymborkis (1 species), Cottonia (1 species), Corybas (1 species), Cryptochilus (2 species), Cryptostylis (1 species), Cymbidium (28 species), Cymbi-diopsis (2 species), Cypripedium (5 species), Cyrtosia (1 species), Dactylorhiza (2 species), Dendrobium (117 species), Dickasonia (1 species), Didiciea (1 species), Didymoplexis (3 species), Diglyphosa (1 species), Diphylax (2 species), Diplocentrum (2 species), Diplomeris (3 species), Diploprora (2 species), Disperis (3 species), Doritis (1 species), Epigeneium(8 species), Epipactis (6 species), Epipogium (6 species), Eria (60 species), Eriodes (1 species), Erythrodes (2 species), Erythrorchis (1 species), Esmeralda (2 species), Eulophia (24 species), Flickingeria (9 species), Galeola (5 species), Gastrochilus (21 species), Gastrodia (6 species), Geodorum (6 species), Goodyera (18 species), Grosourdya (2 species), Gymnadenia (3 species), Habenaria (68 species), Hemipilia (1 species), Herminium (10 species), Herpysma (1 species), Hetaeria (5 species), Holcoglossum (1 species), Hygrochilus (1 species), India (1 species), Ione (6 species), Ipsea ( 1 species), Jejosephia (1 species), Kingidium (1 species), Lecanorchis (1 species), Liparis (49 species), Listera (11 species), Luisia (19 species), Luisiopsis (1 species), Macropodanthus (2 species), Malaxis (14 species), Malleola (1 species), Micropera (4 species), Mischobulbum (2 species), Monomeria (1 species), Myrmechis (2 species), Neogyna (1 species), Neottia (9 species), Neottianthe (3 species), Nephelaphyllum (3 species), Nervilia (16 species), Oberonia (58 species), Odisha (1 species), Odontochilus (8 species), Oreorchis (4 species), Ornithochilus (2 species), Otochilus (4 species), Pachystoma
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(2 species), Panisea (4 species), Pantlingia (2 species), Papilionanthe (4 species), Pecteilis (5 species), Pelantheria (1 species), Penkemia (1 species), Pennilabium (2 species), Peristylus (33 species), Phaius (7 species), Phalaenopsis (12 species), Pholidota (12 species), Phreatia (3 species), Platanthera (14 species), Pleione (7 species), Plocoglottis (2 species), Podochilus (5 species), Polystachya (1 species), Pomatocalpa (7 species), Porpax (6 species), Pteroceras (6 species), Rhinerrhiza (1 species), Rhomboda (3 species), Rhynchostylis (1 species), Risleya (1 species), Robiquetia (6 species), Saccolabiopsis (1 species), Sarcoglyphis (1 species), Sa-tyrium (2 species), Schoenorchis (6 species), Seidenfadeniella (2 species), Seidenfia (6 species), Sirhookera (2 species), Smithsonia (3 species), Smitinandia (2 species), Spathoglottis (3 species), Spiranthes (1 species), Staurochilus (3 species), Stereo-chilus (2 species), Stereosandra (1 species), Sunipia (2 species), Taeniophyllum (11 species), Tainia (3 species), Taprobanea (1 species), Thecostele (1 species), Thelasis (4 species), Thrixspermum (13 species), Thunia (3 species), Tipularia (1 species), Trachoma (1 species), Trias (6 species), Trichoglottis (4 species), Trichotosia (3 species), Tropidia (5 species), Uncifera (3 species), Vanda (15 species ), Vandopsis (1 species), Vanilla (6 species), Vrydagzynea (1 species), Xenikophyton (2 species), Yoania (2 species), Zeuxine (22 species).
Orchids in Arunachal Pradesh. There are 622 species of orchids in Arunachal Pradesh alone - the highest number in any State (Of these, 377 are epiphytes, 160 autophytic terrestrials, and about 20 saprophytes). Major epiphytic genera include Aerides, Arachnis, Bulbophyllum, Coelogyne, Dendrobium, Cymbidium, Eria, Cleisostoma, Rhynchostylis, Vanda and others. Most of the epiphytic orchids are ornamentals (Hegde, 1984, 2000, 2001, 2005). In the tropical valleys of Arunachal Pradesh, one can find cascades of colourful flower-spikes of Rhynchostylis retusa, Aerides odorata, A. williamsii, A. rosea, Cymbidium pendulum, C. aloifolium, Dendrobium aphylla, D. nobile, D. moschatum, D. fimbriatum etc., loaded on tree trunks during spring time which add beauty to the surrounding wood. In subtropical hill forests, bunches of «pineapple-orchids» the Dendrobium densiflorum, D. giganteum, D. grandiflorum, D. eburneum, D. mastersii, Vanda coerulea, Renanthera imschootiana (red vanda), Coelogyne etc., greet the on lookers. The pink flowers of Anthogonium gracile found on the cut ends of rocks and edges carpet the exposed areas adding beauty to the landscape.
Among terrestrials, Acanthephippium, Arundina, Anoectochilus, Calanthe, Phaius, Paphiopedilum are common. Amongst them, Arundina graminifolia, the «bamboo orchid» is normally seen grown in the open sunny areas amongst grassy patches in the foothills. In the thick forests, Anoectochilus and Geodorum, popularly referred to as the «Jewel orchids» group having beautifully designed velvety leaves. Arunachal is the home state of rare and endangered Lady's Slipper orchids, Paphiopedilum species, namely (1) P. fairrieanum, (2) P. venustum and (3) P. spicerianum. Saprophytic genera like Epipogium, Stereosandra, Gastrodia, Eulophia and Galeola grow on decaying organic matter on the forest floor (Tripathi & Barik, 2003).
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Orchids in Assam. In Assam, as many as 290 species of orchids are identified. Tropical wet evergreen forests of Lakhimpur district and it is adjoining foot hills of Arunachal Pradesh is very much rich and more than hundreds of eye-catching and colorful wild orchids are seen to bloom throughout the year. Mostly they are epiphytes. Goodyera procera and Spiranthis sinesis are adapted to aquatic habitat whereas Vanilla pilifera and Galeola altissima are climbers. Orchids grow best in the evergreen and semi-evergreen forest and to some extent in moist deciduous forests. Species belonging to genera Acanthephippium, Anoectochilus, Apostasia, Agrostophyllum, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Eria, Oberonia,, Calanthe, Eulophia, Geodorum, Habenaria, Malaxis, Nephelaphyllum, Vanilla, Zeuxine, Didymoplexis, Galeola, Bulbophyllum, Camarotis are the commonly found orchids. Assam has as many as 26 species threatened orchids. Amongst endemic orchids, Bulbophyllum obrienianum, Calanthe odora, Dendrobiumparciflorum, D. spatella, Eriapumila, Eulophia candida, Liparisplantaginea, Luisia macrotis, Phalaenopsis mastersii, Tainia barbata are reported from the state.
Orchids in Manipur. Many epiphytic and terrestrial orchids of immense horticultural value are grown in wild. About 215 species of orchids belonging to 67 genera have been reported from this state. Venda coerulea (Blue Vanda) and Rananthera imschootiana (Red Vanda) are included in schedule VI (plants) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Amended, 1991). Due to over-exploitation most of the orchids have already been depleted considerably and several are seen only in orchidaria. Some of the taxa facing threat of survival are Anoectochilus tetraplerus, Aldrovenda vasiculosa, Ascocentrum ampullaceum, Ascocentrum miniatum, Dendrobium bensoniae, Dendrobium draconis, Dendrobium heterocarpum and Dendrobium wardianum (Hegde, 2012).
Orchids in Megahalaya. The Khasi, Jaintia and Garo hills around Shillong in the state of Meghalaya boast of more than 300 species of orchids. Epiphytic orchids can be seen on the stunted trees of Rhodendron arboreum, Quercus and Castonopsis species. Ground orchids like Anoectachilus brevilabris, the jewel orchid and Liparis pulchella can be seen. Other orchid species available in the state are Paphiopedilum insigne, P. venustum, Rynchostylis retusa, Coelogyne corymbosa, Dendrobium devonianum, Cymbidium elegans and Vanda coerulea (Nayar & Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990; Haridashan & Rao, 1985).
Orchids in Mizoram. Mizoram is the home land of Vanda coerulea (Blue Vanda) and Renanthera imschootiana (Red Vanda) among north eastern states. Mizoram is also natural home of Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum and P. villosum. Apart from these, there are many orchid species which are having ethnobotanical values are Arundina graminifolia, Eria spicata, Eulophia nuda, Geodorum densiflorum, Malaxis acuminata, Phaius tankervilleae, Pholidota imbricata, Rhyncostylis retusa and vanda testacea (Nayar & Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990). Other tuberous orchids having medicinal importance are Eulophia and Habenaria.
Orchids in Nagaland. Nagaland has about246 species out of 1350 species of orchids found in India. Most of the orchids here are epiphytes or lithophytes. A few terrestrial orchids are also found in the state. Major genera are Acampe, Acanthephippium, Aerides, Anoectochilus, Anthogonium, Aphyllorchis, Arachis, Ascocentrum, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Ceratostylis, Cleisostoma, Coelogyne, Cryptochilus, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Diplomeria, Eria, Eulophia, Flickingeria, Galeola, Gastrochilus, Goodyera, Habenaria, Kingidium, Liparis, Luisia, Malaxis, Micropera, Oberonia, Otochilus, Paphiopedilum, Papilionanthe, Perisrtylus, Phaius, Pholidota, Pleione, Renanthera, Rhyncostylis, Spathoglottis, Thunia, Vanda and Zeuxine (Nayar & Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990).
Orchids in Sikkim. The entire peculiar geographical feature helps Sikkim to become a biodiversity hot spot (Nayar & Sastry, 1999)) and it harbours around 543 species which are distributed in humid sub-tropical, temperate and alpine forest up to an elevation 5000 MSL. The most beautiful and very rare plants of the Alpine zone are Cypripedium tibeticum, C. himalicum and C. elegance. Some endemic species of orchids reported are Oberonia micranthus, Malaxis saprophyllum, Liparis dongchenii, Calanthe trulliformis, C. alpina, C. whiteana, C. chloroleuca, C. anganii, C. keshabii, C. yuksomensis, Risleya atropurpurea, Dediciea cunninghamii, Cymbidium whiteae, Taeniophyllum retro-apiculatum, T. crepidiforme, Thrixpermum pygmaeum, Uncifera lancifolia, Biermannia bimaculata, Gastrochillus affinis, Vanda pumila (Medhi & Chakrabarti, 2009). Other rare species of the state are Satyrium nepalense, Anoectochilus sikkimensis, Coelogyne cristata, Cymbidium eburneum, C. devonianum, Dendrobium falconeri and Vanda pumila. Cymbidium eburneum, C. devonianum, Dendrobium chrysotoxum, Dendrobium densiflorum, D. wardianum and Vanda pumila are the most threatened species of the state.
Orchids in Tripura. There are 57 species of orchids of which Dendrobium has the highest species diversity (14 species). Endangered orchids like Blue vanda (Vanda coerulea) and Red vanda (Renanthera imschootiana) are found in the state (Tripathi & Barik, 2003).
North-Western Himalayas
This region covers the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. The Western Himalayan region is blessed with larger size, higher elevations, cooler drier climate and the wider mountain mass. The pre-dominant forest flora are pine, deodar, far etc. In all, 288 species under 75 genera are found to occur in this region constituting 24.1% of the total Indian orchids. Four species of ground orchids found mainly in this region, namely Platanthera edgeworthii, Habenaria intermedia, Crepidium acuminatum andMalaxis muscifera form important constituents of Astavarga (a group of eight herbs used in preparation of Chyavanprash).
Among the epiphytes, Dendrobium Sw. and Bulbophyllum Thouars. are the largest genera comprising of 16 and 12 species, respectively whereas, among the terrestrial orchids, Habenaria Willd. is the largest group with 13 species. Eleven species are found to be endemic to this region namely, Dendrobium normale, Eria occidentalis,
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Flickingeria hesperis, Gastrochilus garhwalensis, Herminium kumaunensis, Neottia mackinnonii, Neottia nandadeviensis, Peristylus duthiei, Peristylus kumaunensis, Peristylusfallax and Ponerorchis renzii (Jalal et al., 2009a,b, 2010a,b).
Peninsular India
This region comprises Madhya Pradesh, parts of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, extra peninsular region of Central India and Gangetic plains along with Eastern and Western Ghats. Western Ghats harbour dense forests with high humidity and rainfall and the vegetation is rich in scrub jungles, moist and dry deciduous forests, tropical evergreen forests and montane grasslands containing huge number of orchid species. Eastern Ghats consist of broken hills. Orchid diversity in Eastern Ghat is poor as compared to that in Western Ghats. The region is enriched with 379 species belonging to 89 genera constituting 31.72 % of the total Indian orchid flora.
Predominant terrestrial orchid species available in Western Ghats are Acanthephippium bicolor Lindl., Aenhanhreya rotundifolia Blatt., Anoectochillus elatus Lindl., Calanthe masuca Lindl., Calanthe triplicata Willemet, Eulophia epidendrea Koenig., Epipogium roseum D.Don, Geodorum densiflorum Lamk., Habenaria longicorniculata Grah., H. longicornu Lindl., H. multicaudata Sedgw., H. roxburghii Nicolson, Liparis atropurpurea Lindl., Malaxis versicolor Lindl., Nervilia aragona Gaud., Paphiopedilum druryii Bedd., Tainia bicornis Lindl., Vanilla walkeriae Wight., Zeuxine gracilis Breda. and Z. longilabris Lindl (Sharief, 2011). Some rare and endemic epiphytic species from Western Ghats are Aerides ringens Fischer, Bulbophyllum aureum Hook.f., B. fuscopurpureum Wight, B. fimbriatum Lindl., B. fischeri Seid, B. tremulum Wight., B. neilgherrense Wight., Coelogyne breviscapa Lindl., C. nervosa A. Rich., Cottoniapeduncularis Lindl., Cymbidium bicolor Lindl., Dendrobium aqueum Lindl., D. crepidatum Lindl., D. herbaceum Lindl., D. microbulbon A. Rich, D. ovatum Lindl., Diplocentrum recurvum Lindl., Eria nana A. Rich, E. pseudoclavicaulis Blatt., Flickingeria nodosa Daiz., Liparis elliptica Wight., L. viridiflora Bl., Luisia zeylanica Lindl., Oberonia brunoniana Wight., Papilionanthe subulata J. Koen., Pholidota imbricata Hook., Rhyncostylis retusa Bl., Sirhookeria lanceolata Wight., Taeniophyllum alwisii Lindl., Trias stocksii Benth., Vanda testacea Lindl. andXenikophyton smeeanum Reich. Orchids distributed in Eastern Ghats are given in Table 2.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a group of about 319 islands and islets in the Bay of Bengal. The South East monsoon governs the climate of these islands. Heavy mist over the forests in morning, high rainfall from May to November and constant sea currents keep the forest moist throughout the year. These types of climate provide congenial habitats for luxuriant growth of unique orchid flora in the area. This region is home of 115 species belonging to 53 genera. Genera like Grosourdya, Plocoglottis and Vrydagzynea are confined only to this region (Singh et al., 2001). Some orchid genera of Andaman and Nicobar islands are listed in Table 3.
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Table 2. Orchid flora of Eastern Ghats of India (De et al., 2014)
Name of species Habit Flowering time Remarks
Acampe carinata Epiphyte October -January Flowers light yellow with maroon blotches on sub-umbellate raceme
A. ochracea Epiphyte December -February Flowers light yellow with maroon markings on lax panicle
A. praemorsa Epiphyte Flowers small creamy yellow with maroon transverse bands clustered on compact corymbose cyme
A. rigida Epiphyte August -September Flowers pale yellow on sub-corymbose raceme
Acanthephippium bicolor Terrestrial May Flowers yellow specked with red
Aerides maculosa Epiphyte June Flowers mild violet on axillary spreading racme
A. multiflora Epiphyte June - July Flowers purple on long axillary pendulus floral axis
A. odorata Epiphyte June - July Flowers white, lemon scented on extra axillary, deflexed raceme
A. ringens Epiphyte June - August Flowers white on axillary, sub-erect second raceme
Bulbophyllum crassipes Tropical epiphyte October -November Flowers small, yellow maroon, densely spirally arranged in catkin like raceme
B. umbellatum Epiphyte April - May Flowers pale yellow with purple spots on umbellate raceme
Calanthe sylvatica Terrestrial July Flowers large, purple coloured
Cleisostoma appendiculatum Epiphyte August -October Flowers pale yellow on recurved raceme
Coelogyne breviscopa Epiphyte April Flowers white raceme with scarious bract, lip 3-lobed
Cottonia peduncularis Tropical epiphyte March - June Flowers dark purple on long and branched raceme with a bee like lip.
Cymbidium aloifolium Epiphyte April - June Flowers pale yellow with purple centre on long pendulus raceme
C. bicolor Epiphyte February -April Flowers pale yellow at base and maroon towards top borne on lax raceme
Dendrobium aphyllum Tropical epiphyte February -April Flowers pale purple, translucent with sub-panduriform, fenely dendate lip
D. aqueum Epiphyte September -November Flowers showy white. Lip faintly yellowish
D. bicameratum Epiphyte August Flowers pale yellow, crowded on subterminal capitate raceme.
D. cathcartii Tropical epiphyte March - April Flowers yellow-ochre on leaf opposed fascicles of 2-3 flowers.
Name of species Habit Flowering time Remarks
D. crepidatum Tropical epiphyte February -April Flowers white with a large yellow spot on the lip, 1-3 on very short bracteate peduncle from the swollen nodes of the leafless stems.
D. fimbriatum Epiphyte April Flowers golden yellow. Lip orbicular, fimbriate.
D. formosum Tropical epiphyte May - June Flowers white with bright yellow patch on lip, on subterminal racme.
D. herbaceum Epiphyte February -March Flowers greenish white on subterminal condensed racemes.
D. macrostachyum Tropical epiphyte May - July Flowers lemon green, 1-4 in cymes.
D. moschatum Epiphyte May - June Flowers large, spreading, peach coloured, musk scented on a spreading raceme from a node near to apex.
D. regium Tropical epiphyte April - June Flowers magenta coloured with yellow throat on sub-terminal raceme.
Diplocentrum recurvum Epiphyte April - August Flowers small in long racemes, pink to rose or pink or brownish tinged with pink. Lip sessile.
Eria bambusifolia Epiphyte December -January Flowers pale brown on axillary lax raceme
E. lasiopetala Tropical epiphyte March - April Flowers greenish yellow, lip light maroon, on axillary racemes.
E. pauciflora Epiphyte August -September 1-2 white flowered inflorescence
E. reticosa Epiphyte Single flowered
Eulophia epidendraea Terrestrial December -January Scape laxly many flowered. Flowers green white purple.
E. graminea Terrestrial January - May Inflorescence 1-3 per plant, lax flowered produced from the nodes. Flowers inodorous, leaf-green with maroon veins.
E. pulchera Terrestrial May - July Flowers in few-many flowered raceme, greenish purple.
E. spectabilis Tropical terrestrial May - June Flowers greenish white or purple, lax racemes; lip crenate and crisped.
Flickingeria macraei Epiphyte July -September Flowers cream with a pale yellow lip, solitary on top of the pseudobulb.
Gastrochilus acaulis Epiphyte March - April Flowers pale yellow, lip white with violet blotch, on axillary corymb; hypochile cup-shaped
Gastrochilus inconspicuum Tropical epiphyte June -September Flowers greenish purple on a condensed spike, hypochile cup-shaped
Geodorum densiflorum Terrestrial July - August Flowers pinkish white on decurved racemes, lip sub-panduriform.
Name of species Habit Flowering time Remarks
G. recurvum Tropical terrestrial May - June Flowers white, inodorous on long slender decurved corymbose raceme.
Goodyera procera Terrestrial March - May Flowers minute, white; lip saccate at base.
Habenaria commelinifolia Terrestrial August -October Flowers greenish white, inodorous on long dense spike with a long curved spur.
H. digitata Terrestrial July Flowers greenish white with sickle-shaped flower petals.
H. furcifera Terrestrial August -September Flowers green on long and stout peduncle
H. gibsoni var. foetida Terrestrial July - August Flowers green, foul scented, on lax raceme
H. longicorniculata Terrestrial August Flowers greenish white faintly scented on long peduncled raceme.
H. longicornu Terrestrial August -September Flowers white, about 8 on lax raceme
H. marginata September -October Flowers yellow on many flowered lax raceme
H. ovalifolia Terrestrial August -October Flowers green. Side lobes of lip linear-lanceolate, midlobe inflexed, ovate-oblong
H. panigrahiana Terrestrial October -December Flowers green on lax racemes, sweet scented at night
H. rariflora Terrestrial August -September Flowers white with bipartite petals
H. reniformis Terrestrial July -September Flowers green on lax spike
H. roxburghii Terrestrial August Flowers white, mildly fragrant on densely many flowered spike
H. stenopetala Terrestrial October -December Flowers grayish green with brown lip on densely many flowered raceme.
H. virens Terrestrial July - October Flowers white, lip scabrid-pilose, 3-furcate
Kingidium deliciosum Epiphyte May -September Flowers pale yellow and purple
Liparis nervosa Terrestrial May - August Flowers purple or green tinged with pink on long spikes.
L. paradoxa Terrestrial July Flowers small, pale yellow to maroon in terminal raceme
L. viridiflora Epiphyte November -December Flowers pale yellow on slightly recurved, dense flowered raceme
Luisia abrahami Epiphyte March - May Flowers pale green flushed with pale purple
L. birchea Epiphyte Throughout the year Flowers stray coloured, thick. Lip sessile, dark purple.
Name of species Habit Flowering time Remarks
L. trichorhiza Epiphyte March - July Flowers maroon on extra axillary, condensed raceme
L. zeylanica Epiphyte February -March Flowers green and dark purple on extra-axillary condensed raceme
Micropera pallida Epiphyte June -September Flowers light yellow on leaf opposed decurved raceme
Nervilia aragoana Terrestrial May - July Flowers many in lax, slightly drooping, nodding, light green in colour
N. crociformis Terrestrial May - July Flowers greenish white, single on top of the peduncle
N. infundibulifolia Terrestrial June Flowers maroon green on one solitary flowered, pale maroon peduncle
N. plicata Terrestrial May - June Flowers two on top of the peduncle, dull brownish green and white
Oberonia brunoniana Epiphyte September -October and February -March Flowers large, brown
O. ensiformis Epiphyte October -November Flowers minute, greenish-yellow on sigmoid curved spiciform raceme
O. falconeri Epiphyte September -October Flowers minute; in whorls, greenish yellow on densely flowered curved raceme
O. mucronata Epiphyte September -November Flowers are minute, greenish yellow at decurved, spiciform raceme
O. proudlockii Epiphyte February Flowers yellowish, partly sunk in pits of the rachis
Odisha cleistantha Terrestrial October Flowers verdant green, inodorous
Papilionanthe cylindrica Epiphyte February -June Flowers showy, fragrant, white. Lip 3-lobed yellow at the tip, pink with white spot below.
Pecteilis gigantea Terrestrial August -September Flowers are large, snow white, fragrant in terminal raceme
Pelatantheria insectifera Epiphyte October -December Flowers greenish yellow with deep brown streaks lip purple on extra-axillary corymb
Peristylus constrictus Terrestrial June - July Flowers white, fragrant, dense flowered on long terminal spikes
P. goodyeroides Terrestrial July Flowers greenish white, sub-secund on dense flowered spike
P. lawii Terrestrial June - July Flowers minute, white on slender, terete peduncle
P. plantagineus Terrestrial September Flowers greenish white on many flowered spike
Phaius tankervilleae Terrestrial February -March Flowers large, downwardly faced, mildly scented, yellow brown within white without.
Name of species Habit Flowering time Remarks
Pholidota imbricata Epiphyte July -September Flowers small, cream or pale yellow on drooping racemes arising from the base of the petiole
Polystachya concreta Epiphyte July Flowers pale greenish yellow, on terminal raceme
Pomatocalpa decipiens Tropical epiphyte January -March Flowers yellow with reddish blotches on extra-axillary spikes
Robiquetia josephiana Epiphyte August -December Inflorescence pendulous of few flowered raceme. Flowers inodorous, white, small
Seidenfia versicolor Terrestrial or Lithophyte July - August Flowers minute, light yellow or maroon
Smitinandia micrantha Epiphyte April - June Flowers minute, waxy white, faintly scented, small on densely flowered raceme
Spathoglotis plicata Terrestrial Throughout the year Flowers raceme, reddish violet, pink or rarely white
Staurochilus ramosus Epiphyte April - May Flowers pale yellow, mildly scented on paniculate raceme
Taprobanea spathulata Epiphyte March -September Flowers large, golden yellow in raceme
Thunia bracteata Epiphyte August Flowers nodding, large pinkish white on compressed racemes
Tropidia angulosa Terrestrial July Inflorescence terminal, very short, slender with a few crowded small white flowers
Vanda tessellata Epiphyte March - May and September - December Flowers greenish yellow with brownish tessellations, on axillary, zigzag raceme, lip purple
Vanda testacea Epiphyte April Flowers light yellow on axillary raceme
Zeuxine longilabris Terrestrial January -February Flowers small, brownish and white
Table 3. Orchid genera of Andaman and Nicobar islands
Species Habit Category
Bulbophyllum protractum Epiphyte Rare
Dendrobium tenuicaule Epiphyte Endangered
Habenaria andamanica Terrestrial Rare
Malaxis andamanica Terrestrial Endangered
Malleola andamanica Epiphyte Rare
Phalaenopsis speciosa Epiphyte Rare
Taeniophyllum scaberulum Epiphyte Vulnerable
Zeuxine andamanica Terrestrial Rare
Conservation status
The family Orchidaceae is divided into five subfamilies (Apostasioideae, Cypripedioideae, Vanilloidea, Orchidoideae, and Epidendroideae). Orchids account for nearly 8% of angiosperm species diversity (Chase et al., 2015; Willis, 2017). Major threats include habitat destruction, illegal harvesting, and because of their complex life histories, orchids are thought to be particularly vulnerable to the effects of global climate change (Fay & Chase, 2009; Gale et al., 2018; Swarts & Dixon, 2009a). All species of subfamily Cypripedioideae (slipper orchids) were assessed for the Global Red List in a recent project, and due to a combination of habitat degradation and, in some cases, ruthless harvesting, nearly 90% of species were assessed and reported to be threatened (Fay & Rankou, 2016). Slipper orchids had expected a high level of threat, but even the family-wide figure of 56.5% showed that many orchid species are threatened of extinction. Their conservation should be regarded as urgent, if these unique plants are not to decline further.
Threats
Globally, both habitats and the species are under increasing pressure. There is also an increasing evidence that global climatic change may also be influencing species distribution (Fay, 2015b), and benefits and problems associated with assisted migration and translocations to climatically suitable localities are increasingly being discussed in relation to orchids (Ramsay & Dixon, 2003; Swarts & Dixon, 2009a). Like all plants, orchid species with their often complex interactions with pollinators, mycorrhizal fungi and host trees, are likely to be at a greater risk as they are dependent on other organisms that are also being affected by habitat or climatic change. Therefore, orchids face greater challenges than many other plant groups.
Another aspect of threat relating to orchids is illegal harvesting; indiscriminate collection for horticultural purposes, has also been documented as having a major impact on some orchids, notably species of Cattleya, Laelia, Renanthera and some slipper orchids (Cypripedium, Paphiopedilum, Phragmipedium), and in some cases, these have been systematically stripped
from the wild to the habitat of extinction. However, many orchids are not collected for horticulture or are collected in such small numbers that there is unlikely to be a much impact (Cribb et al., 2003; Fay, 2015a). As a result, these desirable orchids and because of perceived
problems with their identification, all orchids were placed on the appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (Cribb et al., 2003), and orchids account for more than 70% of the species listed on CITES. However, it is being observed that many orchid species are still being collected and transported across international borders, for use as medicine and food in addition to the horticultural trade, without the permits required under CITES (Fay, 2015a; Hinsley et al., 2018). The extent of the illegal trade is difficult to manage, but attempts are being made to estimate
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the extent of non-compliance with CITES regulations (Ghorbani et al, 2014; Hinsley et al., 2018). Notable examples of poorly documented trade relates to orchids collected for traditional medicine in East Asia and for production of the foodstuff, salep in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East (de Boer et al., 2017; Kreziou et al., 2016) and Chikanda in South-Eastern Africa (Veldman et al., 2014); the development of novel DNA-based barcoding techniques (Huda et al., 2017, Ramudu & Khasim, 2016) is now opening up the opportunity to identify the orchid species in these processed foodstuffs. In addition, due to illegal trade, an unintended consequence of the listing of all species of orchid in CITES has led to the reduction in the collection of orchids for scientific purposes, including conservation research (Roberts & Solow, 2008).
Conservation measures
About 70% of the world orchids are epiphytic and/or lithophytic; 25% are terrestrial and 5% of the world orchids grow in mixed substrates (lithophytic, epiphytic and terrestrial) (Arditti, 1992). These also occur as saprophytes. Pedersen et al., (2018) stressed the close link between collection based research and conservation. Approaches addressing conservation of process (rather than individual species) may be appropriate in groups which are relatively undergoing evolution due to hybridization and/or polyploidization (Ennos et al., 2012). There are three prominent methods of conservation of genetic resources of orchid species namely, legislative measures, in situ conservation in Sanctuaries/Reserves, and ex situ conservation in Orchidaria/Botanic gardens by cultivation (Hegde, 2012).
Legislative Measures
Renanthera imschootiana (Red Vanda) and Vanda coerulea (Blue Vanda) are now included in schedule VI of Wildlife Protection Act (1972) of Government of India as amended in 1992. As a result, all orchids are protected plants under Wildlife Protection Act. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has a Species Survival Commission (SSC) with a well defined preservation programme for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). Under this provision, orchids are treated as protected species. In India, three genera and eleven species are being treated as protected under Schedule-VI of Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 and simultaneously under CITES Appendix I. All other species of India have been included in Appendix II of CITES. The following species have been kept under CITES Appendix-I and Schedule-VI of Wild Life Protection Act of Govt. of India: Paphiopedilum charlesworthii, P. druryi, P. fairrieanum, P. hirsutissimum, P. insigne, P. spicerianum, P. venustum, P. wardii, Renanthera imschootiana, and Vanda coerulea. However, except P. druryi, which is reported from Kerala, all other species of Paphiopedilum belong to North East India. As per laws, no wild orchids can be traded with and so the plants listed above cannot be allowed for export. However, under CITES rules and
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regulations, whenever CITES Appendix-I species are cultivated, then these can be allowed for export, subject to condition that proper permit for possessing and growing these scheduled plants is obtained from the concerned State, provided the nursery is registered under Wild Life Preservation Office, Government of India. Appendix-I includes threatened and extinct species. In fact, no trade in wild plants is allowed. Trade is allowed in cultivated and artificially propagated plants subject to licensing. Appendix-II covers species which may be threatened unless trade is strictly regulated. In fact, the whole family Orchidaceae is listed on Appendix-II. Trade in wild and propagated specimen is allowed subject to licensing. Further, all cultured orchid seedlings/plantlets in flasks or those aseptically raised from seeds and tissues are now exempted from CITES control w.e.f. April 16, 1993. These legislations have helped in checking illegal collection of orchids from the wild as non- importing countries also accept plants of wild origin. In this regard, the Proceedings of the Seminar on CITES Implementation for Plants (1997), illustrates the method of recognizing the wild plants at the port and the procedure to deal with the same.
In situ conservation
This term refers to the maintenance of the germplasm in its natural habitat allowing continual adaptation to the environment without any human interference.
Biosphere Reserves. These are versatile protected areas to preserve the genetic diversity in the representative ecosystem which are internationally recognized. The proposal for development of biosphere reserve was initiated by UNESCO in 1971 under the «Man & Biosphere» (MAB) programme. The first biosphere reserve of the world was established in 1979. Presently, 564 biosphere reserves have been developed in 109 countries across the world. India has 17 biosphere reserves namely, Achanakamar-Amarkantak, Agasthymalai, Cold Desert, Dihang-Dibang, Dibru Saikhowa, Great Nicobar, Gulf of Mannar, Kachchh, Khangchendzonga, Manas, Nanda Devi, Nilgiri, Nokrek, Pachmarhi, Seshachalam Hills, Simlipal and Sunderbans for conservation of endemic, endangered and vulnerable orchid species.
National Parks. This is an area of adequate natural biological and geomorphological interest owned by a sovereign state having one or several ecosystems where conservation of wild life (both flora and fauna) is practiced along with educative and recreative interest, designated, created and protected by legislation. Hailey National Park, presently known as Jim Corbett National Park is the first developed National Park in India, in 1936. Presently, there are 98 National Parks in India. 96 different species of orchids are found in Simlipal National Park of Orissa and 150 different species of orchids are conserved in Buxar Tiger Reserve of West Bengal.
Sacred Groves. A sacred groove is a special type of area where all forms of life particularly the sacred tree species related to any particular culture are protected by a particular human community, race or tribe in the name of their respective deity.
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Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Chhattisgarh are very prominent states for sacred grooves. About 13 270 sacred grooves presently exist in India (Kumar et al., 2016) and these may be important areas for in situ conservation of orchids of that particular locality.
Gene Sanctuary. Gene sanctuary is a protected area where broad spectrum of genetic variability is conserved to act as a reserve for future use and crop improvement. At present, India has 480 wildlife gene sanctuaries. Sessa Orchid Sanctuary of Arunachal Pradesh with 100 sq. km area conserves about 200 species of orchids. Similar types of sanctuaries have also been created in Sikkim at Deorali and Singtam.
Individual trees. The epiphytic orchid species are conserved on tree species in their natural habitat where they attach themselves to the bark of trees, or the surface of other plants. Some of the host trees of orchid species are Lyonia ovalifolia, Benthamidia capitata, Quercus leucotricha, Diploknema butyracea, Berberis asiatica, Myrica esculenta, Castanopsis indica, Persea odoratissima, Pinus roxburghii, Rhododendron arboreum, Berberis cristata, Engelhardia spicata, Pyrus pashia Shorea robusta, Mioromeles rhamnoides, Alnus nepalensis and Prunus cerasus (De et al., 2013). Their white thick roots are specially adapted to absorb moisture and dissolved nutrients. Because these tropical orchids usually grow high on the trees, rather than on the forest floor, they are accustomed to good air circulation and plenty of light.
Ex situ conservation
It refers to the preservation of germplasm outside the natural habitat. In India, Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is maintaining three National Orchidaria and Experimental Gardens, one each at Yercaud (Tamil Nadu), Howrah (West Bengal), and Shillong (Meghalaya) where representative species of the region are being cultivated. Similarly, Arunachal Pradesh State Forest Research Institute is maintaining a large number of orchid species at Orchid Research Centre, Tipi, Itanagar, Sessa, Dirrang, Jenging and Roing as a measure of ex situ conservation of orchids. In Karnataka, three ex situ conservation centres have been established, one in Kodagu, another in Kudremukh and the third in Dhandeli (Rao & Sridhar, 2007).
Field Gene Banks. In this area, germplasm is collected from natural habitat or from other sources including commercial houses and nurseries and are maintained in the field or protected structures. In this connection, it is worthwhile to mention that in the field gene banks of TBGRI, Trivandrum, nearly 600 different species and 150 hybrids of orchids are maintained; NRC for Orchids, Pakyong, Sikkim has nearly 90 different genera and a number of hybrids of commercial orchids, and Orchid house at Punjab University, Chandigarh maintains nearly 100 species of orchids and some hybrids of commercial importance.
Botanical Gardens. These are protected areas where living plant specimens are conserved in fields or in protected structures providing significant information
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regarding mode of perpetuation, reproductive biology, taxonomical characters and propagation technique. At present, there are 13 botanical gardens in India maintaining a number of orchid species. About 43 species of orchids are collected and displayed in the orchid house of Lloyd Botanical garden, Darjeeling, West Bengal. Swarts & Dixon (2009b) focused on the role of botanic gardens in supporting orchid conservation scientifically and horticulturally.
Herbal Gardens. In these areas, medicinal plant genetic resources are reared in a protected area for maintaining them, generation after generation. Government of India has sanctioned funds for development of herbal gardens in 16 SAU's and research institutions in different agroclimatic regions of the country with a view to conserving and maintaining regional medicinal plants and endangered species (Gupta, 1993). In India, a networking among the herbal gardens is already developed at the Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research (DMAPR), where 83 such gardens with details of their species are registered.
Orchid Seed Gene Bank. Million of seeds are produced in a single capsule of orchid. However, they lack the functional endosperm and require specific mycorrhizal association for germination under natural conditions and consequently, the percentage of germination is low. Many orchids have been germinated through asymbiotic technique where germination is found as high as 90%. The seeds of orchids are orthodox in nature and provide a great scope for long term storage through low temperature.
In vitro conservation. This technique can be used for revitalization of orchid germplasm affected by virus and virus-like diseases through apical meristem culture, as a matter of fact, orchids are first plants to be tissue cultured, in this connection (Pritchard, 1989). Further, though attempts have been made to propagate orchid species in vitro using various explants (seeds, stem, root etc.) (Anuprabha et al., 2017; Arora et al., 2014, 2016; Bhattacharjee & Hossain, 2015; Bhatti et al., 2017; Borah et al., 2015; Chauhan et al., 2015; Hoque et al., 2016; Kaur & Pathak, 2014; Kaur et al., 2017; Pathak et al., 2016, 2017; Sibin & Gangaprasad, 2016; Sibin et al., 2014) so as to develop effective protocols for their in vitro propagation, the data is meagre in terms size of the orchid family. There is a need for studies on genetic stability to avoid the somaclonal variants and slow growth cultures for longer storage duration to avoid frequent transfers. In vitro conservation technique can be used for revitalization of orchid germplasm affected by virus and virus-like diseases through apical meristem culture, as a matter of fact, orchids are first plants to be tissue cultured, in thisconnection (Pritchard, 1989). Further, though attempts have been made to propagate orchid species in vitro using various explants (seeds, stem, root etc.) (Anuprabha et al., 2017; Arora et al., 2014, 2016; Bhattacharjee & Hossain, 2015; Bhatti et al.,2017;Borah et al., 2015; Chauhan et al., 2015; Hoque et al., 2016; Kaur & Pathak, 2014; Kaur et al., 2017; Pathak et al., 2016, 2017; Sibin & Gangaprasad, 2016; Sibin et al., 2014) so as to develop effective protocols for their in vitro propagation, the data is meager in terms size of the orchid family.
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There is a need for studies on genetic stability to avoid the somaclonal variants and slow growth cultures for longer storage duration to avoid frequent transfers.
Cryopreservation. Cryopreservation means long term storage or conservation of plant parts and reproductive materials at a very low temperature, in the laboratory condition either in liquid nitrogen (-196oC) or in vapour phase (-150oC). Tissues/ explants of orchids can be cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen cylinders as a long term storage procedure after proper treatment of cryoprotectants and plant vitrification solutions. In our country, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) has created the facility of cryobank where 2.5 lakhs of germplasm lines can be stored (Singh, 2005).
Systematics and conservation genetics
Many groups of orchids are distributed in tropical regions, and phylogenetic studies are required so as to identify the number of species especially those that are phylogenetically isolated and consequently of high conservation value. Li et al., (2018) studied the use of phylogenetic measures as a mean for prioritizing members of Orchidaceae for conservation in the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot, revealing Thailand, South China and Vietnam as the areas with highest phylogenetic diversity and Tropidia curculigoides, Thaia saprophytica and Risleya atropurpurea as accounting for disproportionately great evolutionary distinctiveness. At the population level, genetic studies may be useful to identify regions or populations that should be treated as high priority for conservation. Earlier, development of markers was time consuming and expensive, but new technologies are speeding up marker development and allowing more loci to be studied than previously possible, and as a result, the quality of the information to be used in conservation planning will improve (Gargiulo et al., 2018). Molecular genetic tool aids are used for species-level orchid identification. Techniques include Sanger sequencing-based DNA «barcoding» techniques, which for plants typically compare two or more DNA regions (or «markers») from each specimen with a library of verified reference samples (Hollingsworth et al., 2016). They also include the so-called next-generation sequencing techniques that use the whole genome or a much larger number of markers from across the entire genome to compare with a reference library. Barcoding approaches have been exploited for the monitoring of ornamental orchid trade (Phelps, 2015), so as to identify constituent species, in processed medicinal products (Wu et al., 2009; Yao et al., 2009), and most recently, to identify species in edible orchid products (Ghorbani et al., 2017; Veldman et al., 2017).
Conservation of habitats
Habitat alteration, including total destruction, modification, and fragmentation, is widely recognised as the main threat to biodiversity in tropical regions where orchid diversity is the greatest. The relationship between epiphytic orchids and their host trees, calls for further research into the mechanisms controlling distribution
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of orchids on different species of trees (De et al., 2013). Some orchid conservation organisations such as the Orchid Conservation Alliance (OCA), which state that «preservation of natural orchid habitat preserves the orchids, their pollinators, their genetic diversity, and other fauna, as well as the birds, frogs, insects, reptiles, and mammals in the forests where they live» (OCA, 2017). A combination of creating new habitats, transplantation, and ex situ conservation in seed banks and living collections will meet these challenges. Conserving orchids in isolation from their pollinators, fungal associates and host plants means that the complexity of their biology is lost, even though the species still survives as has also been indicated earlier by Vanlalruati et al. (2016). For this reason, orchid conservationists suggest «integrated conservation», using ex situ techniques to support in situ conservation as an appropriate method.
Pollination mechanisms, pollinators, and conservation
Orchids are popular for the wide range of pollination mechanisms and syndromes (Darwin, 1862; Micheneau et al., 2009) and the species diversity has been attributed, in part, to the diversity of pollen mechanisms (Cozzolino & Widmer, 2005). Because of the diversity of pollination mechanisms, Roberts (2003) revealed the importance of understanding pollination biology for effective orchid conservation, stating that «orchid conservation will require a case by case, functional ecosystem approach», and stated the need to conserve not only the orchid and the pollinator, but also in some cases the «pollinator food source, nesting site, larval host species, and in the case of parasitic pollinators, the larval host plant of its host species». Hutchings et al. (2018) studied that climate change can decouple the phenology of pollinator and orchid species, potentially leading to reproductive failure of the orchid. Recent papers have reviewed birds (Micheneau et al., 2006; van der Niet et al., 2015), crickets (Micheneau et al., 2010), fungus gnats (Phillips et al., 2014) and biting midges (Bogarin et al., 2018), as specialized pollinators. Many orchid species attract pollinators with the forms of deception including food deception, brood-site imitation, shelter imitation, rendezvous attraction and sexual deception (Buragohain & Chaturvedi, 2016; Jersakova et al., 2006), and recent discoveries of dual deceive (pseudopollen lacking food value; Davies et al., 2013), carrion mimicry (van der Niet et al., 2011), and production of fruit fly aggregation pheromones (Karremans et al., 2015) demonstrate that the understanding of the full complexities of orchid pollination is yet to be understood.
Mycorrhizal associations and conservation
Seed and protocorm development, including discussion of mycorrhizal associations and the survival of orchid seeds and plantlets in their natural habitats were reviewed by Yeung (2017). It is well known, the role of mycorrhizal fungi is crucial to the survival of self- sustaining populations of orchids (Hajong & Kapoor, 2016), but there is much research still to be conducted before understanding the
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mycorrhizal associations, especially with epiphytic orchid species. Even with temperate terrestrial species, the techniques including measurement of isotope enrichment of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen now allow us to demonstrate the contribution that the fungi make to the nutrition of orchids, even when the plants are apparently capable of photosynthesis (Gebauer et al., 2016). Recently, techniques are used to demonstrate that reintroduced seedlings of Cypripedium calceolus had established mycorrhizal associations after planting out, despite being produced axenically (Fay et al., 2018).
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СОХРАНЕНИЕ РЕДКИХ И НАХОДЯЩИХСЯ ПОД УГРОЗОЙ ИСЧЕЗНОВЕНИЯ ОРХИДЕЙ В ИНДИИ
Л.Ч. Де
Национальный центр исследований орхидей, Индия e-mail: lakshmanchandrade@gmail.com
Orchidaceae - это одно из самых крупных семейств цветковых растений, которое включает наиболее уязвимые и находящиеся под угрозой исчезновения растения ввиду нарушения среды обитания и изменений климата. Но многие из орхидных также находятся под угрозой исчезновения ввиду незаконной добычи этих растений для садоводства, использования в культуре, медицине, в качестве пищевых ресурсов. В данной обзорной статье детально обсуждаются распространение редких и находящихся под угрозой исчезновения видов орхидей, а также деятельность, связанная с торговлей ими, экономическое значение ценных видов орхидей и меры по их сохранению. Результаты исследования важны в целях разработки подходов, которые могут позволить нам бороться с угрозами в более широком масштабе, чтобы дополнить целенаправленные подходы к видам, которые находятся в группе высокого риска их исчезновения в природе. Ключевые слова: эндемик, эпифит, наземный вид, сохранение ex situ, сохранение in situ
