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Ruziyeva M.
Termez State university
COMPARATIVE AND CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF HISTORISMS IN ENGLISH AND UZBEK LANGUAGES
Annotation: This article is about comparative and contrastive analysis of historical words in English and Uzbek. The analysis also reveals the integral and differential features between the two languages. It also provides comparative-contrastive analysis and detailed information on historical words and their characteristics.
Keywords: historical words, comparative analysis, contrastive analysis English and Uzbek languages, vocabulary, theory.
"The greatest wealth of a nation is its language!" Millennials accumulate in the priceless treasures of human thought and experience and live forever. "
Mikhail Alexandrovich Sholokhov
Introduction. Human languages are systems of symbols designed for the purpose of communication. Linguistics is the study of these knowledge systems in all their aspects (system structure, the use in the production and comprehension of messages, etc.). It is the scientific study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, and pragmatics.
Comparative linguistics, or comparative-historical linguistics (formerly comparative philology[1]) is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness. Genetic relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language and comparative linguistics aims to construct language families, to reconstruct proto-languages and specify the changes that have resulted in the documented languages. To maintain a clear distinction between attested and reconstructed forms, comparative linguists prefix an asterisk to any form that is not found in surviving texts. A number of methods for carrying out language classification have been developed, ranging from simple inspection to computerised hypothesis testing. Such methods have gone through a long process of development. Comparative linguistics (originally comparative philology) is a branch of historical linguistics which is concerned with comparing languages in order to establish their historical relatedness. Relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language, and comparative linguistics aims to reconstruct proto-languages and specify the changes which have resulted in the documented languages. In order to maintain a clear distinction between attested and reconstructed forms, comparative linguists prefix an asterisk to any form which is not found in surviving texts.The fundamental technique of comparative linguistics is the comparative method, which aims to compare phonological systems, morphological systems, syntax and the lexicon. In principle, every difference between two related languages should be explicable to a high degree of plausibility, and systematic changes, for
example in phonological or morphological systems, are expected to be highly regular.
Contrastive Linguistics, roughly defined as a subdiscipline of linguistics which is concerned with the comparison of two or more (subsystems of) languages, has long been associated primarily with language teaching. Apart from this applied aspect, however, it also has a strong theoretical purpose, contributing to our understanding of language typology and language universals. Issues in theoretical CL, which also feature in this volume, are the choice of model, the notions of equivalence and contrast, and directionality of descriptions. Languages used for illustration in this volume include English, German, Danish, and Polish. Contrastive linguistics is a branch of linguistics that describes the similarities and differences among two or more languages at such a level as phonology, grammar and semantics, especially in order to improve language teaching and translation.Depending on what particular authors feel to be the most appropriate description for the issue under discussion, the labels can be found as (Applied) Contrastive (Language) Studies, Contrastive Linguistics, Comparative (Historical or Typological) Linguistics, Contrastive (Interlanguage) Analysis, Contrastive (Generative) Grammar, Comparative Syntax, Contrastive Lexicology/Lexicography, Contrastive Pragmatics, Contrastive Discourse Analysis, or Contrastive Sociolinguistics, to mention but a few. 346Second language learners, teachers of foreign languages, translators, travelers, businessmen, etc. in nature are polyglots. They determine both interlingual and intralingual (dis)similarities in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, semantics and discourse in order to improve their communicative language competence. Their communicative language competence is activated in the performance of the various language activities, involving reception, production and interaction. Polyglots test themselves and self-testing helps them to learn what they do not know so as to guide study activities. That is a perfectly valid use of testing, but polyglots do not appear to realize the direct benefit that accrues from testing themselves on their ability to retrieve the tested knowledge in the future. They are practical contrastists. Polyglots do contrast in their listening, speaking, writing and reading. Second language learners, travelers, business men, translators, etc., in nature, teach themselves second language. In the case, they do contrast languages (on the levels of phonetics, phonology, lexis, grammar and meaning in listening, speaking, reading and writing): they are contrastive „naive" linguists; they improve their learning second language by continual assessment, by self-testing.
During the historical development of a language, changes take place in all its parts, including lexicon. As a result, some words in the language become obsolete, or new words appear. These phenomena divide the lexical structure of the language into 3 layers
requires separation:
1. Modern layer (neutral layer).
2. Worn layer.
3. New layer.
Modern layer. This layer is the main layer of the Uzbek lexicon which consists of words related to the general lexicon - lexicon of unlimited use, as well as terms, words related to the profession. Words in this layer have neither the color of novelty nor the color of old.
In the modern world, words are not used more or less in speech, they are used by all people, or they are used only by certain groups of people.
So, words that are neither new nor old are obsolete layer. Due to the disappearance of the object or concept of the word in life, or the emergence of other words that express their meaning, some words are gradually forgotten without being used. They are rarely used in speech. Some of them are understandable, some are not understood by many, and if they are used in fiction and scientific literature, they require explanation. Obsolete words are called obsolete vocabulary. Outdated vocabulary is
divided into 2 types:
1. Historical words or historisms.
2. Archaic words or archaisms.
Historical words are words that are the names of things and events in the past, but are now obsolete. Historical words are used to refer to things that have disappeared from society, to individuals. There are no synonyms for them in the current language. Since people first began speaking, language has always been evolving and adapting to the needs of its users. Thousands of words that were once widely used have long since been forgotten and others have taken their place.
Here we can analyse 10 historical words we should definitely bring back to daily use.
1. Fudgel- To "fudgel" means pretending to work without actually accomplishing anything. Example: "Gilbert spent Friday afternoon fudgeling at his desk, while counting down the hours until the weekend."
2. Grufeling- Often used in ridicule, to be "grufeling" is to wrap yourself up and lie down comfortably. Example: "Want to Netflix and grufel tonight?"
3. Callipygian- "Callipygian" is an antiquated, and maybe more polite, way of saying someone *has a nice butt. Example:"That callipygian woman seems to have inspired a sudden interest in fitness and wellbeing."
4. Lanspresado- A "lanspresado" is someone who conveniently shows up without any money. Example: "There's no excuse for lanspresados, now that everyone has a credit card."
5. Pannychis-The word might not sound like fun, but "pannychis" is defined as an all-night feast or ceremony. Example: "What a wild pannychis last night! Let's do it again next weekend!"
6. Philogrobilized- "Philogrobilized" is how people used to describe a hangover without admitting to having been drinking. Example: "I'm not hungover. I'm just *philogrobilized."
7. Expergefactor- "Expergefactor" is a complicated, catch-all term to describe anything that wakes you up. Example "Sorry I'm late, my expergefactor didn't go off this morning."
8. Frobly-mobly-: "Frobly-mobly" means exactly how it sounds: so-so, feeling neither well nor unwell. Example: "At best, Dave was feeling fTobly -mobly that morning. Then, he had a coffee."
9. Twattling- "Twattling" is another word for idle gossip. Example: "Their texts showed a record of twattling that went back several weeks."
10. Kakistocracy
-"Kakistocracy" is a forgotten word that describes an unqualified and incompetent government. Example: "Our reliable system of checks and balances will prevent a kakistocracy.
Archaich and historical words in the Uzbek language.
Some words mean different things during language development remains. While one meaning of such words is obsolete, the other meaning is used in the modern layer. For example: compare the meaning of the word rich: The rich man silently watched the traveler (Oybek). What did you do to become rich?
Archaic words. The current situation is outdated names are called archaic words. The set of archaic words is called archaisms. Archaism is a Greek word that means "ancient." The old adage is, "Everything is possible in this life." for a word belonging to a modern stratum that cannot change its outdated name will be available. In fact, if something has more than one name, speak it will be preserved in a language that can respond to the laws of development, respond what you can't get is old paint that won't be used. For example, secretary - kotib, mirzo, kotiba. Among them kotiba is widely used .The word secretary is outdated and archaic the rest. Archaic words are becoming obsolete in the eyes of the speaker. Such words are revolution, district, region, international (international). Revolyutsiya (inqilob), tuman (rayon), viloyat (oblast), baynalmilal (internotsional), bitik (book), ulus, budun (people), omiz (chest).
It is important to understand that a living national language does not survive in its development, and the lexical reserve of a language changes at different stages. It has to do with the event itself. New words replace old words, their content changes at all language levels: phonetic, morphological, grammatical, lexical, syntactic. Some words have modern equivalents that correspond to the period and the literary norms of the language, while others remain unused and disappear altogether. First, it depends on the historical changes that take place in everyday life, in culture, in behavioral characteristics, in nature, i.e. the very specificity of existence determines the vocabulary of the mother tongues. Scientific and technological progress, the emergence of new objects, things, devices, discoveries in various fields of science, the phenomenon of borrowing from other cultures, assimilation and conquest processes lead to the emergence of new words, including by replacing existing ones. The disappearance of certain objects of the material world leads to the disappearance of the words that denote them. It can be said that changing the content of a language is an absolutely "natural" process. In addition to the appearance of neologisms, some of the actively used phrases fall into the category of obsolete words or are not used at all. It is known that the basis of language is active and passive vocabulary. In fact, neologisms that have not yet taken root in the structure
of speech, and therefore words that gradually go out of fashion or lose their semantics, as well as changes in historical reality, belong to passive phrases.
Outdated dictionaries, in turn, are characterized by historians and archaisms. This linguistic phenomenon is carefully studied, which allows linguists to observe changes in language at all levels, as well as to analyze ancient texts. Writers use labeled phrases to convey the atmosphere of the historical period described. Words to this category are also of interest to historians, archaeologists, ethnographers, and culturologists, as they help in many ways to reconstruct the historical realities of a particular period. Even psychologists, when studying mental properties, ask linguists for help in determining the meaning of obsolete words.
Archaic lexemes are lexemes that give place to one another. As a result of social development, some things are called by different lexemes, and the previous one becomes obsolete. For example: ulus (xalq-people), afandi (o'qituvchi-teacher), lang (cho'loq-), tilmoch (tarjimon-translator)
These include words that denote special things, positions, events that have ceased to exist in the modern world but have occurred before. Examples of such words are boyar, voivode, petitioner, property. They have no synonyms in modern language and you can only learn their meaning from an explanatory dictionary. Basically, such obsolete words refer to the description of the daily life, culture, economy, hierarchy, military and political relations of ancient times.
For example, a petition: 1) to bow the forehead to the ground; or 2) a written request. A steward is a palace clerk who is one degree lower than a boyar who usually serves at the boyar or royal table.
Masalan, iltimosnoma: 1) peshonani erga tekkizib ta'zim qilish; yoki 2) yozma so'rov. Styuard - bu odatda boyar yoki qirollik stolida xizmat qilgan boyardan bir daraja pastroq bo'lgan saroy xodimi.
Most importantly, obsolete historiographical words are found among the names associated with military themes, as well as those associated with household items and clothing: chain mail, visor, redoubt, pishchal, endova, prosak, armyak, sevalka.
Here are a few examples of sentences that contain obsolete words.
Examples: "The petitioners came to the king and complained to the commander, and they said that they seized the property from them and then distributed it; the nobles, stewards, and boyars also complained that the governors were seizing their palace villages. The Cossacks and archers came to the king. raised applications., asked for bread and money wages. "
Historical lexemes that are used in modern Uzbek literary language refers to something that has gone out of use in the past:
1) socio-political name: podsho-king, xon-khan, qul-slave, quloq- , batrak-, qarol- , chorikor- ;
2) position, status name: qozi-judge, amin-, bek- , amir, arbob, udaychi, g'unchachi, shoir-poet, zakotchi- ; foytun- , kashkul- ;
3) measure and name of currency: botmon- , dirham-dirham , miri- , paqir-bucket, qadoq- pack, tanob- , arshin- ;
5) name of clothes: kuloh- hat, choriq-stockings, paranji-shawl, chachvon-scarf, qalami-,hirqa- hijab;
6) name of the document: vasiqa, sanad, taraka, vaqfnoma;
7) educational term: mudarris, xalfa-khalfa, haftiyak.
Since historical lexemes have become obsolete and become a thing of the past, many of them may be unfamiliar to the modern man. Some of the meanings of some plural lexemes have become historical, the other is preserved.
Old meaning New meaning
rais - supervisor of religious rites rais - leader
arbob - village's elder person arbob - prominen person
saroy-palace - royal residence saroy - a place of cultural events
boy-rich - feudal, landowner b o y - many
oqsoqol- is the elder of the neighborhood oqsoqol-an old, respected
person
Conclusion. True understanding is unattainable without both love and detachment, and we can only learn to view anything with detachment by comparing it with other things which are both like and unlike it. We cannot understand the present without a knowledge of the past, our native land without having spent some time in a foreign country, our mother-tongue without a working knowledge of at least two other languages. Without such knowledge, our love of ourselves at the present moment, of our country, of our language, remains an ignorant idolatry, exemplified by the Frenchman who said: "The great advantage of the French language is that in it the words occur in the order in which one thinks them." In summary, the level of consumption of historical words has stopped in both languages, but the level of study is wide. The study revealed that historical and English words in English and Uzbek have many integral and differential features.
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