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12Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 6 (2013 6) 782-797
УДК 82'25:[=03.222.1=111]
Communication Strategies: an Analysis of Communication Strategies Used by Iranian Students of Translation Studies in Translation from Persian into English
Sahar Farrahi Avval*
Iran
Received 21.01.2013, received in revised form 26.02.2013, accepted 30.04.2013
Communication has always been a basic tool for people to get their message across and to negotiate meaning. Apart from different kinds of communication, language is the most effective and common one. But to use a language the most effectively, in addition to knowing the lexicon and grammar of that language, some tools should be at hand of the language user to compensate for any weakness in the above mentioned tools. In this article, the author intends to introduce (CSs) and to show whether they are workable in translation as they are in speaking tasks by conducting a research on BA students of translation.
Keywords: communication, negotiate meaning, communication strategies, translation Process
1. Introduction
People cannot go on without having relationship with each other and to satisfy their
needs they are obliged to be contact with others. Sometimes, and it is better to say, most of the time it is hard for the communicators to get their messages across or it is hard for the receiver to understand the speaker to understand what is said and heard despite a big load of lexicon and grammar rules, so the need of some tools are felt in such a situation. The condition mentioned can exist when people in the same language communicate with each other such that they cannot find the appropriate word or expression.
When first, CSs were introduced to the world of linguistics; they were primarily used in the area of teaching and learning languages.
Many research have been carried out on the usage of 'communication strategies' (CSs) in teaching and learning languages but less is done on their usage in translation. It is worthy to mention that these strategies are well known as tools for communication, within one specific language or between two different languages.
Translation is a communication process that involves the transfer of a message from a source language to a target language.
Hatim and Mason consider translation as «an act of communication which attempts to relay, across cultural and linguistic boundaries, another act of communication (Hatim & Mason: 1997).» In most cases, according to Houbert, «translation is to be understood as the process
© Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved
* Corresponding author E-mail address: s_farrahi_a1980@yahoo.com
whereby a message expressed in a specific source language is linguistically transformed in order to be understood by readers of the target language « (as cited in Ordudari: 2008).
So with above mentioned reasons, we can gather that translation into another language is a kind of communication process with all the conditions of speaking another language so that the tools workable to compensate for the weaknesses in speaking process could be applicable for translation also. The author tries to prove this theory by doing a research on translation students which is explained in details in the following parts.
2. Communication strategies (CSs)
Rubin defines communication strategies as those strategies used by a learner to promote and continue communication with others rather than abandon it. They are strategies used by speakers when they come across a difficulty in their communication because a lack of adequate knowledge of the language.
Regarding CSs, different typologies are proposed by scholars in the field such as Tarone (1977), Faerch and Kasper (1983), the Nijmegen
Group (based on Poulisse, 1987; Kellerman, 1991), Bialystok (1990), Dornyei (1995), Dornyei and Scott ( 1997) and finally Rabab'ah (2001). Although they are different in the surface but it seems that they say the same thing. In the present study the model proposed by Tarone is applied and in this article we suffice to demonstrate her model in Table 1 and.
3. Statement of the problem and research question
The students of translation even those who own a good mastery of words, expressions and grammar rules have problems in translating the texts and they are not able get through the obstacles in communicating the meaning and concept. It reveals that some tools are needed to solve this problem. If the usage of CSs in communication is subconsciously done, they are to be manifested in the student's renderings and if this happens, we can strongly say that CSs are workable in translation process too. So in the study carried out by the researcher, it is intended to answer the question that whether the students of translation apply CSs in their translation or not.
Table 1. Tarones model of CSs
1. Avoidance
a Topic avoidance b Message abandonment
2. Paraphrase
a Approximation b Word coinage c Circumlocution
3. Conscious transfer
a Literal translation b Language switch
4. Appeal for assistance
5. Mime
4. The study
4-1. Participants
The participants were 29 students of translation, 4 of whom were male and 25 were female (gender was not under consideration for this study) and they were 22-30 years old. They were selected from among 69 students of translation which had between 14-20 credits to graduate and had never been to any English speaking countries before.
To have a homogenous group in terms of language proficiency, the Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was administered to 69 students. The standard deviation of 69 scores was fund to be 9.86 (SD= 9.86). Then, scores falling within ± 1 SD from the mean were included in the study (41.21< X < 60.93, X= 51.07) and other participants who took the OPT were omitted from the study.
4-2. Instruments
Since the focus of the study, as was mentioned earlier, was to investigate the CSs that the translation students used in their translations, three kinds of materials were used to elicit the participants' actual employment of CSs.
First, the OPT was used to select a homogenous sample of participants. Then, in order to investigate the CSs the participants used for translation problems they encountered during the translation process, a translation task, a standard translation of « The Darling» (a short story written by Anton Chekhov and translated by Ahmad Golshiri consisting of 1016 words (see Appendices A and B for Persian and English texts)) was administered to the selected sample to translate from Persian into English. Since the above mentioned is accepted in the translation society, the clarity, naturalness and accuracy f his translation of the text was out of question.
Finally, a multiple choice test (see Appendix C) was administered to explore students'
perceptions of each CS they made use of in their translations. This test included 10 items; each item included an English word, phrase or sentence with its equivalent in English; in this process the equivalent under consideration was provided according to a specific CS which was included in four choices and the participants were supposed to distinguish it from among four given choices. For their ease of understanding, definitions of CSs were attached to the test papers so that the participants could study them and then answer the questions (see Appendix E for definitions of CSs)
4-3. Data collection and procedure
As mentioned above, first, a screening Oxford Placement Test was administered to 69 translation students. Then, after selecting 29 participants from them based on their mastery level as described before, sometime later, they were asked to do the translation job as was described above. The students were asked not to use any dictionaries because perfect translations were not expected but a communicative one with the vocabulary and grammar rules the participants already knew and, meanwhile, they had been assured that the results of this translation task and the following perception test would have no effects on their term scores so that they could feel free to do the job.
By comparing the 29 translation done by the participants against the standard translation and the original text, the differences were recorded as the CSs cases the CSs categorization was done according to the provided definition for each CSs based on Tarone model. By calculating the Chi square for the strategies found, statistically it revealed that the usage of CSs in the translations were significant for the following investigations.
The researcher looked for words, phrases and sentences in which CSs were employed by the
participants to convey the meaning. Based on the model by Tarone and provided definition for each strategy, the translations done by the participants were analyzed and the CSs occurrences were reported which are demonstrated in the next chapter.
The same process was established by an expert in the field of translation such that the participants' translations were analyzed again to find CSs cases. The differences between to analyses of the researcher of the study and the expert's were registered.
Then two analyses were compared and by calculating the correlation coefficient which it revealed enough correlation between the data reported by the researcher and the data reported by the expert. Seven CSs were found the participants' translations. The coding reliability
for each strategy is demonstrated in tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8:
Finally, the questionnaires of 10 items were given to them to investigate whether they knew what CSs they had employed in their translations or not. The calculated Chi square for the significant frequency of correct answers is demonstrated in the next chapter.
4-4. Results
In this section, the results of the study are reported. Just as a reminder, there was an attempt to see whether CSs are used by translation students in the course translating a text.
After the selection of 29 participants out of 69 ones by screening them through administering the OPT, they were given the translation task.
Table 2. The obtained correlation coefficient between two coders for approximation strategy
Correlations
Strategy type Approximation 1 Approximation 2
Approximationl Pearson Correlation 1 .950**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
Approximation 2 Pearson Correlation .950** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 3. The obtained correlation coefficient between two coders for topic avoidance strategy
Correlations
Strategy type Topic avoidance 1 Topic avoidance 2
Topic avoidancel Pearson Correlation 1 941**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
Topic avoidance2 Pearson Correlation 941** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 4. The obtained correlation coefficient between two coders for circumlocution strategy
Correlations
Strategy type Circumlocution1 Circumlocution 2
Circumlocution 1 Pearson Correlation 1 .883**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
Circumlocution 2 Pearson Correlation .883** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 5. The obtained correlation coefficient between two coders for literal translation strategy
Correlations
Strategy type Literal translation 1 Literal translation 2
Literal translation 1 Pearson Correlation 1 .890**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
Literal translation 2 Pearson Correlation .890** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 6. The obtained correlation coefficient between two coders for message abandonment strategy
Correlations
Strategy type Message abandonment 1 Message abandonment 2
Message abandonment1 Pearson Correlation 1 1.000**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
Message abandonment 2 Pearson Correlation 1.000** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
4. 4. 1. Results of the translation task
The analysis of the translation task yielded seven CSs and 1482 occurrences of CSs totally. The CSs found, classified based on the highest frequently occurring ones to the lowest ones are: approximation, topic avoidance, circumlocution,
literal translation, message abandonment, language switch and finally appeal for assistance.
Table 9 shows the type and frequency of CSs employed by the participants.
As the table above shows, the most frequently CS used by the participant is
Table 7. The obtained correlation coefficient between two coders for language switch strategy
Correlations
Language switch1 Language switch2
Language switch 1 Pearson Correlation 1 1.000**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
Language switch 2 Pearson Correlation 1.000** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 8. The obtained correlation coefficient between two coders for appeal for assistance strategy
Correlations
Strategy type Appeal for assistance1 Appeal for assistance2
Appeal for assistance1 Pearson Correlation 1 1.000**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
Appeal for assistance2 Pearson Correlation 1.000** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 29 29
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
approximation. In Table 10 some examples of this strategy taken from the participants' translation are illustrated
The strategy which registered the most after approximation was topic avoidance which some examples of the participants' translation are presented in Table 11 below.
The third strategy used was circumlocution. The examples are presented in Table 12
The fourth strategy which registered the most occurring CS after circumlocution is literal translation.
For this kind of analysis, the back translation of the participants were analyzed against the Persian translation and occurrences of literal translation were found the examples of which are demonstrated in Table 14 as follows:
The fifth strategy employed by the participants was message abandonment. Some examples of this strategy taken from the participants' translations are illustrated in Table 15
After message abandonment, language switch registered the most CSs. The examples are illustrated in Table 16:
The last strategy employed by the participants of this study is appeal for assistance and the examples for this CS are demonstrated in Table 17:
The participants who used this CS intended their readers to understand them because they felt that they could not be able to convince the readers understand what they had translated and used this CS in the middle of their translation process.
Table 9. Types and frequency of CSs employed by the participants
Strategy type Total number of instances Frequency (%)
Approximation 1160 78.27
Topic avoidance 102 6.88
Circumlocution 83 5.60
Literal translation 56 3.77
Message abandonment 44 2.96
Language switch 23 1.55
Appeal for assistance 14 0.94
Total 1482 100.0
Table 10. Examples of approximation used by the participants of the study
Participants' back translation The original text
The girl always had a crush on somebody. She was always loving somebody.
She retold... She repeated.
... and every woman likes to be his wife. .and any woman could be glad to get him as a husband.
Animals doctor Veterinarian
... and they married. . and the wedding followed.
Table 11. Examples of topic avoidance used by the participants of the study
Participants' back translation The original text
In the summer she sat on the... and... In the summer she sat on the steps and...
.. .who sat the whole time in his. in ... .who sat the whole time in his armchair in.
And ... he had been. And evidently he had been.
After that she heard his sedate vice the whole day.
It's getting to be a nuisance.
Table 12. Examples of circumlocution used by the participants of the study
Participants' back translation The original text
, when she was going to school. , when a pupil.
.a middle aged woman that Olenka did not know her very much. . an elderly woman, a distant acquaintance.
. that Olenka was not familiar with. . an elderly woman, a distant acquaintance.
... a man that you can count on. . a steady man.
. her temperature had gone up vey much. .fever.
Table 14. Examples of literal translation used in translation by the participants of the study
Participants' back translation The Persian translation
... she dragged the speech to Pustovalov and. 1_JJ liû _jl 1_lû 1_J^^JJJI^^ ^SJ^J J
. she drew the speak to Pustovalov and. 1_JJ liû _jl 1_lû 1_J^CJJI^^ ^SJ^J J
. or she picked the dinner on the table. J'f JJ^ f^J f^ ......
Time how soon passes! Jf'ù £û JjJ f^ ^jjj!
. because Olenka was not a secret keeper man. ... £JÙ 1<Jù^>1 'Jf J J Ù^ûjJ^ ù_JJ.
. to him she draw cross. ... _û J f^ ijJ...
Table 15. Examples of message abandonment used in translation by the participants of the study
Participants' back translation The original text
In the evening they. In the evening they prepared lessons together, and Olenka wept with sasha over the difficulties.
He stayed only about ten minutes and. He stayed only about ten minutes, and spoke little, but Olenka fell in love with him.
When the doctors. When the doctors discuss things, please don't mix in.
Table 16. Examples of language switch used in translation by the participants of the study
Participants' back translation The original text
. araghitoon and gazaneyeh badboo. Dock and thistles overgrew the yard.
.masoom smile. .and at the good naïve smile that.
She repeated the dampezeshk words. She repeated the veterinarian's words.
.his black rish. .his dark beard.
Table 17. Examples of appeal for assistance used in translation by the participants of the study
Participants' translation
... I mean that... ... it means that.. ... the meaning is that.. . I am meaning that.
4.4.2. Results
of CSs perception questionnaire
After the translation task was carried out, a questionnaire of 10 questions on CSs perception test to which the definitions of a number of CSs were
enclosed were distributed among the participants and they were asked to answer them. Analysis of the papers revealed that nobody answered all 10 questions. In Table 18, the number of correct answers for each question are illustrated.
Table 18. The number of correct answers for each question of the CSs test
Questions No of correct answers of 29 participants
Q 1 27
Q 2 25
Q 3 17
Q 4 20
Q 5 24
Q 6 17
Q 7 25
Q 8 27
Q 9 19
Q 10 28
Table 19. The Chi square of approximation
Approximation
Observed N Expected N Residual
35 2 2.6 -.6
36 2 2.6 -.6
37 3 2.6 .4
38 3 2.6 .4
39 3 2.6 .4
40 1 2.6 -1.6
41 6 2.6 3.4
42 4 2.6 1.4
43 2 2.6 -.6
45 2 2.6 -.6
46 1 2.6 -1.6
Total 29
4-5. Data analysis
By comparing the 29 back translation done by the participants against the standard translation and the original text, the differences were recorded as the CSs cases by the researcher and by calculating the Chi square for each CS found, statistically it revealed that the usage of CSs in the translations were significant for the following investigations.
In Table 20 the Chi square calculated for topic avoidance is illustrated.
In Table 21 the Chi square calculated for circumlocution is illustrated.
In Table 22 The Chi square calculated for literal translation is illustrated.
In Table 23 the Chi square calculated for message abandonment is illustrated.
In Table 24 the Chi square calculated for language switch is illustrated.
In Table 25 the Chi square calculated for appeal for assistance is illustrated.
Finally, the Chi square of the perception test was calculated and the results which are illustrated in Table 26 showed a significant meaningfulness in perception of the participants of CSs employment.
Table 20. The Chi square for topic avoidance
Topic avoidance
Observed N Expected N Residual
1 4.1 -3.1
5 4.1 .9
9 4.1 4.9
9 4.1 4.9
3 4.1 -1.1
1 4.1 -3.1
1 4.1 -3.1
29
Table 21. The Chi square for circumlocution
Circumlocution
Observed N Expected N Residual
1 1 5.8 -4.8
2 9 5.8 3.2
3 15 5.8 9.2
4 1 5.8 -4.8
5 3 5.8 -2.8
Total 29
Table 22. The Chi square for literal translation
Literal translation
Observed N Expected N Residual
0 3 5.8 -2.8
1 10 5.8 4.2
2 6 5.8 .2
3 7 5.8 1.2
4 3 5.8 -2.8
Total 29
6. Conclusions
Based on the findings discussed, a few conclusions can be drawn. First of all, a look at the findings of this research reveals the necessity of teaching CSs to the students of translation in Iran from the first semester of studying translation
studies at BA level. Teaching these strategies would be beneficial and the application of these strategies helps students of translation, future translators, to get over difficulties they may encounter during translation process. These difficulties may arise from the deficiency in knowledge of grammar or
Table 23. The Chi square for message abandonment
Message abandonment
Observed N Expected N Residual
0 5 5.8 -.8
1 11 5.8 5.2
2 8 5.8 2.2
3 3 5.8 -2.8
4 2 5.8 -3.8
Total 29
Table 24. The Chi square for language switch
Language switch
Observed N Expected N Residual
0 17 5.8 11.2
1 4 5.8 -1.8
2 5 5.8 -.8
3 2 5.8 -3.8
4 1 5.8 -4.8
Total 29
Table 25. The Chi square for appeal for assistance
Appeal for assistance
Observed N Expected N Residual
0 14 9.7 4.3
1 14 9.7 4.3
2 1 9.7 -8.7
Total 29
Table 26. The Chi square of the CSs perception test
Observed N Expected N Residual
5 2 5.8 -3.8
6 4 5.8 -1.8
7 1 5.8 -4.8
8 10 5.8 4.2
9 12 5.8 6.2
Total 29
lexis. In addition, students of translation should have enough opportunities and time to carry out translation tasks.
Translating from English into Persian is focused more than translating from Persian into English in Iranian universities. If this type of translation had been focused before administering this study, the result would have been different
and the participants would have operated more powerfully.
As was pointed out earlier, translation is a communicative act and this point should be taught to students of translation also and with such a look at this communicative act, the necessity of teaching these strategies to students of translation will be recognized.
References
1. Golshiri, A. (2005). The Best Short Stories. Iran. Tehran, Negah
2. Hatim, B. & Mason, I. (1997). Translator as Communicator. London and New York: Routledge.
3. Ordudari, M. (2008).Good Translation: Art, Craft, or Science?. Translation Journal, 12, (1). Retrieved May, 13, 2010.
4. Rusk, J. (1999). 201 Stories by Anton Chekhov. Retrieved June 27, 2010 from www.ibiblio.org/ eldritch/ac/j r/index. html.
Appendix A
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j Cflf _jùj fi JjJJ.
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Appendix B
She was always loving somebody. She couldn't get on without loving somebody. She had loved her sick father, who sat the whole time in his armchair in a darkened room, breathing heavily. She had loved her aunt, who came from Brianska once or twice a year to visit them. And before that, when a pupil at the progymnasium, she had loved her French teacher. She was a quiet, kind-hearted, compassionate girl, with a soft gentle way about her. And she made a very healthy, wholesome impression. Looking at her full, rosy cheeks, at her soft white neck with the black mole, and at the good naïve smile that always played on her face when something pleasant was said, the men would think, «Not so bad,» and would smile too; and the lady visitors, in the middle of the conversation, would suddenly grasp her hand and exclaim, «You darling!» in a burst of delight.
He took her to the wicket-gate, said good-bye and went away. After that she heard his sedate voice the whole day; and on closing her eyes she instantly had a vision of his dark beard. She took a great liking to him. And evidently he had been impressed by her, too; for, not long after, an elderly woman, a distant acquaintance, came in to have a cup of coffee with her. As soon as the woman was seated at table she began to speak about Pustovalov--how good he was, what a steady man, and any woman could be glad to get him as a husband. Three days later Pustovalov himself paid Olenka a visit. He stayed only about ten minutes, and spoke little, but Olenka fell in love with him, fell in love so desperately that she did not sleep the whole night and burned as with fever. In the morning she sent for the elderly woman. Soon after, Olenka and Pustovalov were engaged, and the wedding followed.
She repeated the veterinarian's words and held the same opinions as he about everything. It was plain that she could not exist a single year without an attachment, and she found her new happiness in the wing of her house. In any one else this would have been condemned; but no one could think ill of Olenka. Everything in her life was so transparent. She and the veterinary surgeon never spoke about the change in their relations. They tried, in fact, to conceal it, but unsuccessfully; for Olenka could have no secrets. When the surgeon's colleagues from the regiment came to see him, she poured tea, and served the supper, and talked to them about the cattle plague, the foot and mouth disease, and the municipal slaughter houses. The surgeon was dreadfully embarrassed, and after the visitors had left, he caught her hand and hissed angrily:
«Didn't I ask you not to talk about what you don't understand? When we doctors discuss things, please don't mix in. It's getting to be a nuisance.»
Gradually the town grew up all around. The Gypsy Road had become a street, and where the Tivoli and the lumber-yard had been, there were now houses and a row of side streets. How quickly time flies! Olenka's house turned gloomy, the roof rusty, the shed slanting. Dock and thistles overgrew the yard. Olenka herself had aged and grown homely. In the summer she sat on the steps, and her soul was empty and dreary and bitter. When she caught the breath of spring, or when the wind wafted the chime of the cathedral bells, a sudden flood of memories would pour over her, her heart would expand with a tender warmth, and the tears would stream down her cheeks. But that lasted only a moment. Then would come emptiness again, and the feeling, What is the use of living? The black kitten Bryska rubbed up against her and purred softly, but the little creature's caresses left Olenka untouched. That was not what she needed. What she needed was a love that would absorb her whole being, her reason, her whole soul, that would give her ideas, an object in life that would warm her aging blood. And she shook the black kitten off her skirt angrily, saying: «Go away! What are you doing here?»
At three o'clock they had dinner. In the evening they prepared the lessons together, and Olenka wept with Sasha over the difficulties. When she put him to bed, she lingered a long time making the sign of the cross over him and muttering a prayer. And when she lay in bed, she dreamed of the faraway, misty future when Sasha would finish his studies and become a doctor or an engineer, have a large house of his own, with horses and a carriage, marry and have children. She would fall asleep still thinking of the same things, and tears would roll down her cheeks from her closed eyes. And the black cat would lie at her side purring: «Mrr, mrr, mrr.»
Suddenly there was a loud knocking at the gate. Olenka woke up breathless with fright, her heart beating violently. Half a minute later there was another knock.
«A telegram from Kharkov,» she thought her whole body in a tremble. «His mother wants Sasha to come to her in Kharkov. Oh, great God!»
She was in despair. Her head, her feet, her hands turned cold. There was no unhappier creature in the world, she felt. But another minute passed, she heard voices. It was the veterinarian coming home from the club.
Appendix C
CSs perception test
Choose the correct communication strategy for each question.
1- the thing you open bottles for corkscrew:
a)appeal for help b)topic avoidance
c)circumlocution d) approximation
2- ship for sailboat:
a) approximation b) word coinage
c)literal translation d) prefabricated pattern
3 -........................for dinner is ready:
a) approximation b) literal translation
c) topic avoidance d) word coinage
4- vegetarianist for vegetarian:
a) topic avoidance b) approximation
c) word coinage d) circumlocution
5- making the sound: ghoor, ghoor for frog:
a) literal translation b) non linguistic signals
c) topic avoidance d) word coinage
6- when you do not remember something, you say to the person you are talking to: what do you call it? a) circumlocution b) non linguistic signals
c) appeal for help d) prefabricated pattern
7- I put on my kafsh:
a) literal translation b) code switching
c) appeal for help d) non linguistic signals
8- making a circle with your hands when you do not know the word circle in English: a) code switching b) literal translation
c) approximation d) non linguistic signals
9- you eat it when you are hungry for food:
a) circumlocution b) literal translation
c) word coinage d) appeal for help
10- using the word thing for specific words you do not know, for example: I like a thing to drink and a thing to read:
a) approximation b) word coinage
c) use of all purpose word d) literal translation
Стратегии коммуникации: анализ коммуникационных стратегий, используемых иранскими студентами-переводчиками в переводе с персидского на английский язык
С.Ф. Аввал
Иран
Коммуникация всегда выступала основным инструментом, использующимся для передачи сообщений. Одновременно с иными видами коммуникации человеческий язык является наиболее эффективным и привычным видом. Однако в целях наиболее эффективного использования языка в дополнение к знанию лексикона и грамматики данного языка для носителя языка должны быть доступны некоторые инструменты, призванные компенсировать любые недостатки отмеченных выше средств. В данной статье автор делает обзор коммуникативных стратегий и старается продемонстрировать их применимость к переводу на примере устных заданий для студентов-бакалавров, обучающихся переводческому делу.
Ключевые слова: коммуникация, передача значения, коммуникативные стратегии, процесс перевода.
