CC BY
0УДК 629.113
CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERIES USED IN BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES (BEV) AND HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES (HEV)
Asanov Seyran
Turin Polytechnic University in Tashkent, seyran.asanov@polito.uz, +998993979817
Umerov Fikret
Turin Polytechnic University in Tashkent fikret.umerov@polito.uz, +998909941341
Abstract:
Objectives: This review article aims to provide an in-depth exploration and classification of the various types of batteries used in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), highlighting their characteristics, advancements, and the impact they have on the performance and sustainability of these vehicles. The objective is to offer a comprehensive understanding of current battery technologies and their future potential in the evolving landscape of electric mobility.
Method: The article outlines the critical roles and specific battery requirements for Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), emphasizing the differences between them. BEVs, powered solely by batteries, necessitate high energy density for extended range, durability for longevity, fast charging capabilities, and efficient thermal management. HEVs, combining electric and internal combustion engines, require batteries with high power density for short power bursts, smaller size for efficiency, durability under variable loads, and compatibility with the internal combustion engine. Classification criteria for these batteries include energy density, power density, cycle life, charge/discharge rate, cost, temperature stability, safety, and environmental impact, which collectively influence the performance and sustainability of the vehicle. A table summarizes the properties of various battery chemistries, comparing their cell voltage, specific energy, cycle life, specific power, and self-discharge rate.
Results: an overview of battery technologies for BEVs and HEVs, comparing the established lead-acid and NiMH batteries with modern lithium-ion and emerging technologies like solid-state batteries is provided. It emphasizes lithium-ion's balance of energy density, lifespan, and cost as the current standard for BEVs and HEVs, while noting solid-state and other advanced batteries as promising due to their potential for higher energy densities, improved safety, and environmental benefits. The suitability of each battery type for electric vehicles is assessed based on energy density, power density, lifecycle, cost, and environmental impact, with lithium-ion batteries leading the way but emerging technologies showing significant potential for future applications.
Conclusion: a comprehensive overview of the evolution and current state of battery technology for electric vehicles, highlighting lithium-ion batteries' leading role in the market and the promising future of solid-state and other advanced batteries is provided. It underscores the importance of ongoing research to overcome sustainability challenges and the pivotal role of battery innovation in the shift towards renewable energy, positioning the development of advanced batteries as crucial for the continued progress of the electric vehicle industry.
Keywords: BEV battery, Li-ion battery, lead-acid, solid state battery.
Аннотация:
Цели: Цель этой обзорной статьи - провести углубленное исследование и
классификацию различных типов аккумуляторов, используемых в аккумуляторных электромобилях (BEV) и гибридных электромобилях (HEV), осветив их характеристики, достижения и влияние, которое они оказывают на производительность и экологичность этих транспортных средств. Цель состоит в том, чтобы дать всестороннее представление о современных технологиях аккумуляторных батарей и их будущем потенциале в меняющемся ландшафте электромобильной.
Метод: В статье описываются важнейшие роли и конкретные требования к аккумуляторам для электромобилей с аккумуляторной батареей (BEV) и гибридных электромобилей (HEV), подчеркиваются различия между ними. BEV, работающие исключительно от батарей, требуют высокой плотности энергии для увеличения дальности действия, долговечности, возможности быстрой зарядки и эффективного управления температурой. Для HEV, сочетающих в себе электрические двигатели и двигатели внутреннего сгорания, требуются аккумуляторы с высокой удельной мощностью для коротких всплесков мощности, меньшего размера для повышения эффективности, долговечности при переменных нагрузках и совместимости с двигателем внутреннего сгорания. Критерии классификации этих аккумуляторов включают плотность энергии, удельную мощность, срок службы, скорость зарядки/разрядки, стоимость, температурную стабильность, безопасность и воздействие на окружающую среду, которые в совокупности влияют на производительность и экологичность транспортного средства. В таблице обобщены свойства различных химических элементов питания, сравниваются напряжение их элементов, удельная энергия, срок службы, удельная мощность и скорость саморазряда.
Результаты: представлен обзор аккумуляторных технологий для BEV и HEVs, сравнение существующих свинцово-кислотных и NiMH-аккумуляторов с современными литий-ионными и новыми технологиями, такими как твердотельные аккумуляторы. В нем подчеркивается баланс плотности энергии, срока службы и стоимости литий-ионных аккумуляторов в качестве текущего стандарта для BEV и HEV-аккумуляторов, в то же время отмечаются твердотельные и другие усовершенствованные аккумуляторы как многообещающие из-за их потенциала для повышения плотности энергии, повышения безопасности и экологических преимуществ. Пригодность каждого типа аккумуляторов для электромобилей оценивается на основе плотности энергии, удельной мощности, срока службы, стоимости и воздействия на окружающую среду, при этом лидируют литий-ионные аккумуляторы, но новые технологии демонстрируют значительный потенциал для будущих применений.
Заключение: представлен всесторонний обзор эволюции и текущего состояния аккумуляторных технологий для электромобилей, подчеркивающий ведущую роль литий-ионных аккумуляторов на рынке и многообещающее будущее твердотельных и других передовых аккумуляторов. Это подчеркивает важность продолжающихся исследований для преодоления проблем устойчивого развития и ключевую роль инноваций в области аккумуляторных батарей в переходе к возобновляемым источникам энергии, позиционируя разработку передовых аккумуляторов как решающее значение для дальнейшего прогресса индустрии электромобилей.
Ключевые слова: аккумулятор BEV, литий-ионный аккумулятор, свинцово-кислотный, твердотельный аккумулятор.
Annotatsiya:
Maqsadlar: ushbu sharh maqolasining maqsadi akkumulyatorli elektr transport vositalarida (BEV) va gibrid elektr transport vositalarida (HEV) ishlatiladigan turli xil
akkumulyator turlarini chuqur o'rganish va tasniflash, ularning ishlashi, yutuqlari va ushbu transport vositalarining ishlashi va barqarorligiga ta'sirini yoritishdir. Maqsad zamonaviy akkumulyator texnologiyasi va ularning o'zgaruvchan elektromobillik landshaftida kelajakdagi salohiyati haqida keng qamrovli tushuncha berishdir.
Usul: maqolada akkumulyatorli elektr transport vositalari (BEV) va gibrid elektr transport vositalari (HEV) uchun akkumulyator batareyalarining muhim rollari va o'ziga xos talablari tasvirlangan, ular orasidagi farqlar ta'kidlangan. Faqat batareyalar bilan ishlaydigan BEVLAR diapazonni, chidamlilikni, tez zaryadlash qobiliyatini va haroratni samarali boshqarishni oshirish uchun yuqori energiya zichligini talab qiladi. Elektr va ichki yonish dvigatellarini birlashtirgan HEVLAR qisqa quvvat portlashlari uchun yuqori quvvat zichligi batareyalarini, samaradorlikni oshirish uchun kichikroq o'lchamlarni, o'zgaruvchan yuklarda chidamlilikni va ichki yonish dvigateliga moslikni talab qiladi. Ushbu batareyalarni tasniflash mezonlariga energiya zichligi, quvvat zichligi, ishlash muddati, zaryadlash/tushirish tezligi, narxi, harorat barqarorligi, xavfsizligi va atrof-muhitga ta'siri kiradi, ular birgalikda transport vositasining ishlashi va ekologik tozaligiga ta'sir qiladi. Jadvalda turli xil kimyoviy elementlarning xususiyatlari umumlashtiriladi, ularning elementlarining kuchlanishi, o'ziga xos energiya, xizmat muddati, o'ziga xos quvvat va o'z-o'zidan tushirish tezligi taqqoslanadi.
Natijalar: BEV va HEVs uchun akkumulyator texnologiyasi haqida umumiy ma'lumot, mavjud qo'rg'oshin kislotasi va NiMH batareyalarini zamonaviy lityum-ion va qattiq holatdagi batareyalar kabi yangi texnologiyalar bilan taqqoslash. U BEV va HEV batareyalari uchun joriy standart sifatida energiya zichligi, ishlash muddati va lityum-ion batareyalar narxining muvozanatini ta'kidlaydi, shu bilan birga qattiq holatdagi va boshqa ilg'or batareyalarni energiya zichligini oshirish, xavfsizlikni yaxshilash va atrof-muhitga foyda keltirishi mumkinligi sababli istiqbolli deb ta'kidlaydi. Har bir turdagi elektr avtomobil akkumulyatorining yaroqliligi energiya zichligi, quvvat zichligi, ishlash muddati, narxi va atrof-muhitga ta'siri asosida baholanadi, litiy-ionli batareyalar etakchi o'rinni egallaydi, ammo yangi texnologiyalar kelajakda foydalanish uchun katta imkoniyatlarni namoyish etadi.
Xulosa: lityum-ion batareyalarning bozordagi etakchi rolini va qattiq holatdagi va boshqa ilg'or batareyalarning istiqbolli kelajagini ta'kidlab, elektr transport vositalari uchun akkumulyator texnologiyalarining evolyutsiyasi va hozirgi holatini har tomonlama ko'rib chiqish. Bu barqaror rivojlanish muammolarini bartaraf etishda davom etayotgan tadqiqotlarning muhimligini va qayta tiklanadigan energiya manbalariga o'tishda akkumulyator innovatsiyalarining asosiy rolini ta'kidlab, ilg'or akkumulyatorlarning rivojlanishini elektr transport vositalari sanoatining keyingi rivojlanishi uchun hal qiluvchi ahamiyatga ega.
Kalit so'zlar: bev batareyasi, lityum-ion batareyasi, qo'rg'oshin kislotasi, qattiq holatdagi batareya.
I. Introduction
The Role of Batteries in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)The dawn of the 21st century has witnessed a remarkable shift in the automotive industry, with a significant pivot towards sustainability and renewable energy. Central to this transformation are Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), each playing a pivotal role in reducing carbon emissions and dependency on fossil fuels. The heart and soul of these innovative transport mediums are their batteries, a technology that has undergone rapid advancement to meet the demands of modern mobility[1], [2].
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): In BEVs, the battery is not just a component; it is the cornerstone of the vehicle's functionality. These vehicles are entirely powered by electricity stored in their batteries, making the performance, range, and efficiency of the battery a critical
aspect of the BEV's overall performance. Unlike traditional inter nal combustion engines, BEVs rely on batteries for all operational power, encompassing propulsion, air conditioning, and electronic systems. The capacity and efficiency of these batteries directly dictate the vehicle's range, charging speed, and longevity, thereby influencing consumer appeal and practicality[3].
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): The role of batteries in HEVs, while equally crucial, differs significantly. HEVs combine a conventional internal combustion engine with an electric propulsion system. The battery in an HEV serves as a supplemental power source, enhancing efficiency by providing additional power during acceleration, enabling regenerative braking, and powering the vehicle at low speeds or in idle-stop scenarios. This dual-system approach in HEVs allows for reduced fuel consumption and emissions, while also providing the flexibility and range familiar to conventional vehicles[4].
The evolution of battery technology, particularly advancements in lithium-ion batteries, has been a driving force in the proliferation of BEVs and HEVs. These batteries offer a desirable balance of high energy density, long life cycles, and a decreasing cost profile, making them a preferred choice in the automotive sector. However, challenges such as energy capacity, charging infrastructure, and environmental impact of battery production and disposal remain critical considerations in the ongoing development of BEV and HEV technologies[5].
In summary, the battery is not merely a power storage device in BEVs and HEVs; it is a fundamental element that defines the efficiency, environmental impact, and viability of these vehicles. As the automotive industry continues to evolve towards a more sustainable future, the development of more advanced, efficient, and environmentally friendly battery technologies remains a key area of focus. This review aims to delve into the classification of these batteries, providing a comprehensive understanding of their types, characteristics, and implications for the future of electric and hybrid electric vehicles[6], [7].
II. Method
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are designed with the fundamental principle of sustainability and efficiency. At their core, BEVs operate exclusively on electric power, distinguishing them from traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. The primary source of power in a BEV is its battery pack, which feeds electric motors to propel the vehicle[8].
Hybrid Electric Vehicles combine the traditional internal combustion engine with an electric propulsion system. The key principle behind HEVs is to optimize efficiency and reduce emissions. They achieve this by utilizing the electric motor at low speeds or in stop-and-go traffic, where internal combustion engines are less efficient and more polluting[9].
The advancement of electric and hybrid electric vehicles has been largely influenced by the evolution of battery technologies. While both Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) utilize batteries as a key component, their requirements and functionalities differ significantly.
Battery Requirements for BEVs Capacity and Energy Density: BEVs require batteries with high energy density to ensure a sufficient driving range. Since the battery is the sole source of power for propulsion, it needs to store enough energy to meet the demands of daily commutes and long journeys. Higher capacity batteries are crucial for extending the vehicle's range and making it a viable alternative to conventional vehicles. A typical characteristic illustrating the relationship between the battery voltage (V) and capacity (Ah) is illustrated in Figure 1.
Longevity and Durability: Given that the battery in a BEV is used extensively, it needs to be durable and capable of sustaining numerous charging cycles without significant degradation.
Longevity is vital to maintain the vehicle's range and overall performance over time[11].
400.0 380.0 360.0
>
a 340.0
£
300.0
280.0
7,227 k m, 46.46 Ah
96,231 km, .V- л\
195,387 km, 42.52 Ah-- \\\
257,541 km, 38 Ah .......... \\\
10
40
50
20 30
Capacity (Ah)
Figure 1 Voltage -capacity characteristic of BEV batteries[10]
Fast Charging Capabilities: The ability to quickly recharge is essential for BEV batteries, especially for long-distance travel. Therefore, batteries must be designed to safely handle rapid charging while minimizing the impact on battery health[12].
Safety and Thermal Management: High-capacity batteries generate more heat, so efficient thermal management systems are crucial in BEVs to maintain optimal operating temperatures and ensure safety. Battery Requirements for HEVs
Power Density: In HEVs, the battery is used for shorter bursts of power, such as during acceleration or for energy recovery during braking. Therefore, batteries in HEVs prioritize power density over energy density. Power density refers to how quickly energy can be delivered by the battery.
Smaller Size and Weight: HEVs do not rely solely on the battery for propulsion, which allows for the use of smaller and lighter batteries compared to BEVs. This reduction in size and weight is crucial for maintaining the efficiency and performance of the vehicle.
Durability Under Variable Loads: HEV batteries frequently alternate between charging and discharging states, especially in city driving with frequent stops and starts. Therefore, these batteries need to be resilient under variable load conditions[13].
Compatibility with Internal Combustion Engine: The battery in HEVs must seamlessly integrate with the vehicle's internal combustion engine. This requires a battery management system that efficiently balances power delivery between the engine and the electric motor[14].
When classifying batteries for use in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)[15], several key criteria must be considered. These criteria not only determine the suitability of a battery for a particular application but also impact the overall performance, efficiency, and sustainability of the vehicle. The following are the primary classification criteria:
• Energy Density- refers to the amount of energy a battery can store relative to its weight or volume. It is typically measured in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) or watt-hours per liter (Wh/L). Importance- High energy density is crucial for BEVs to maximize range per charge. In HEVs, while energy density is less critical than in BEVs, it still contributes to overall vehicle efficiency.
• Power Density-Power density is the measure of how quickly a battery can deliver energy.
It is usually expressed in watts per kilogram (W/kg). Importance: High power density is essential for HEVs, as it allows for rapid energy discharge during acceleration and efficient energy recovery during braking.
• Cycle Life-the number of complete charge and discharge cycles a battery can undergo before its capacity falls below a specified percentage of its original capacity. Importance: Longer cycle life reduces the need for frequent battery replacements, impacting the long-term cost and sustainability of the vehicle.
• Charge/Discharge ^ate-this refers to how quickly a battery can be charged and discharged. It is often represented as a "C-rate" (capacity rate). Importance: For BEVs, a higher charge rate is desirable for fast charging capabilities. In HEVs, a high discharge rate is important for providing instant power.
• Cost-the cost factor includes not only the initial purchase price but also the long-term costs related to battery life, maintenance, and disposal. Importance: Lower costs make electric and hybrid vehicles more accessible and competitive with traditional vehicles, encouraging broader adoption.
• Temperature Stability and Safety-this involves a battery's performance and safety characteristics under different temperature conditions. Importance: Batteries must operate safely and efficiently across a range of temperatures, as extreme conditions can impact performance and lifespan[16].
• Environmental Impact-this criterion considers the environmental footprint of the battery throughout its lifecycle, including manufacturing, usage, and disposal. Importance: Minimizing environmental impact is key to ensuring that the shift to electric vehicles contributes positively to sustainability goals[17]. Table 1 provides summary of the properties of some batteries.
Table 1.
Properties of different battery types[18]
Chemistry Symbol Cell voltage (V) Specific energy (Wh/kg) Cycle life Specific power (W/kg) Self-discharge (% per month)
Lead-acid PbA 2 35 ~500 250-500 5
Nickel-
metal NiMH 1.2 30-100 >100 200-600 >10
hydride
Lithiumion Li-ion 3.8 80-160 >1000 250-600 <2
Lithium
iron LiFePO4 2.5 50-100 >20000 NA NA
phosphate
IILResults
The choice of battery technology is critical in defining the performance, efficiency, and environmental impact of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs). Various types of batteries have been developed and employed in these vehicles, each with its unique characteristics and suitability. Here are some of the most prominent types:
1. Lead-Acid Batteries
Description: One of the oldest types of rechargeable batteries. They use a lead dioxide cathode, a sponge lead anode, and a sulfuric acid electrolyte.
Applications: Due to their lower energy density and shorter lifespan, lead-acid batteries are now less common in modern BEVs and HEVs. They are primarily used in ancillary roles, such as powering the vehicle's electrical systems[19].
2. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries
Description: NiMH batteries have a nickel oxide hydroxide cathode and a metal hydride anode, which is a hydrogen-absorbing alloy.
Applications: They were popular in early HEVs due to better energy density than lead-acid batteries and a relatively good cycle life. However, they have been largely superseded by lithium-ion batteries in newer models[20].
3. Lithium-Ion Batteries
Description: Lithium-ion batteries use a lithium compound as the electrode material. They are known for high energy density, a relatively long lifespan, and low self-discharge.
Applications: This is the most widely used type of battery in modern BEVs and many HEVs. They offer a good balance of energy density, power density, and longevity, making them suitable for the high demands of these vehicles.
Subtypes: There are several subtypes of lithium-ion batteries, including Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4), Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC), and Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA), each with different characteristics in terms of energy density, safety, and cost[21].
4. Solid-State Batteries
Description: An emerging technology where the liquid electrolyte is replaced with a solid electrolyte.
Applications: Though still in the development phase, solid-state batteries promise higher energy densities, faster charging times, and improved safety compared to conventional lithiumion batteries. They are seen as a potential future standard for both BEVs and HEVs[22].
5. Alternative and Emerging Technologies
Other Technologies: These include lithium-sulfur, zinc-air, and flow batteries, among others. Each of these technologies is at different stages of research and development, offering unique advantages like higher energy capacities or environmentally friendly materials.
Applications: While not yet widely used in commercial BEVs and HEVs, these emerging technologies represent the frontier of battery research and could play a significant role in future vehicle models[23][24].
In evaluating the suitability of different battery types for use in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), a comparative analysis is essential. This analysis will focus on key aspects such as energy density, power density, lifecycle, cost, and environmental impact[25].
1. Lead-Acid Batteries
Energy Density: Relatively low, limiting their use in modern BEVs and HEVs.
Power Density : Moderate, suitable for short bursts of power.
Lifecycle: Shorter compared to other types, with a limited number of charge/discharge
cycles.
Cost: Low initial cost but higher long-term costs due to frequent replacement.
Environmental Impact: High due to the use of lead and acid, although recycling systems are well-established.
2. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries
Energy Density : Higher than lead-acid but lower than most lithium-ion batteries.
Power Density : Good, making them suitable for HEVs.
Lifecycle: Better than lead-acid but generally inferior to lithium-ion.
Cost: Moderate, though less cost-effective in the long run compared to lithium-ion batteries.
Environmental Impact: Less harmful than lead-acid, but recycling is more complex.
3. Lithium-Ion Batteries
Energy Density : High, which is crucial for the extended range in BEVs.
Power Density: Varies among subtypes but generally high, making them versatile for both BEVs and HEVs.
Lifecycle: Long, with many types capable of thousands of charge/discharge cycles.
Cost: Higher initial cost but more cost-effective over time due to longevity and performance.
Environmental Impact: Concerns exist around mining and disposal, but efforts are being made to improve recycling processes.
4. Solid-State Batteries
Energy Density: Potentially very high, which could significantly increase the range of
BEVs.
Power Density : Expected to be high, with fast charging capabilities.
Lifecycle: Predicted to be longer than current lithium-ion batteries.
Cost: Currently high due to developmental and manufacturing complexities, but likely to decrease as the technology matures.
Environmental Impact: Expected to be lower due to the absence of liquid electrolytes and potentially safer materials.
5. Alternative and Emerging Technologies (e.g., Lithium-Sulfur, Zinc-Air)
Energy Density: Varies, but some, like lithium-sulfur, have very high potential energy
densities.
Power Density: Still under development, with the goal to match or exceed current lithium-ion batteries.
Lifecycle: Generally lower at present but with the potential for improvement.
Cost: Currently high due to being in the early stages of development.
Environmental Impact: Potentially lower, especially if made from more abundant or environmentally friendly materials.
In summary, while lithium-ion batteries currently lead in terms of overall balance of performance for BEVs and HEVs, emerging technologies like solid-state and alternative chemistries are showing promising future potential. The choice of battery type depends on a variety of factors, including the specific requirements of the vehicle, cost considerations, and environmental impacts. As battery technology continues to evolve, these factors are expected to shift, influencing future trends in electric and hybrid vehicle design and manufacture.
IV. Conclusion
The exploration of battery technology in the context of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) reveals a dynamic and rapidly evolving landscape. This review has highlighted the diverse range of batteries, each with its unique characteristics and suitability for different applications within the electric vehicle sector. From the older, more established lead-acid and nickel-metal hydride batteries to the current dominance of lithium-ion batteries and the exciting potential of solid-state and other emerging technologies, the progress in this field is pivotal in driving the automotive industry towards a more sustainable future.
Key Takeaways:
Lithium-Ion Leadership: Lithium-ion batteries have emerged as the frontrunner in the
current market, offering an optimal balance of energy density, power density, lifecycle, and efficiency. Their versatility makes them suitable for a wide range of applications in both BEVs and HEVs.
Emerging Technologies: Solid-state batteries and other emerging technologies such as lithium-sulfur and zinc-air are showing promising prospects. These technologies could potentially overcome some of the limitations of current batteries, offering higher energy densities, improved safety, and reduced environmental impact.
Sustainability Challenges: Despite the advancements, the environmental and sustainability challenges associated with battery production and disposal remain significant concerns. Ongoing research and development are crucial in addressing these issues, with a focus on improving recycling processes and exploring more sustainable materials.
Outlook: The continuous advancement in battery technology is not only enhancing the performance and appeal of electric vehicles but also playing a critical role in the global shift towards renewable energy and reduced carbon emissions. The future of transportation is inextricably linked to the evolution of battery technology, and this field holds immense potential for innovation and improvement.
In conclusion, as the world moves towards greater adoption of electric vehicles, the development and refinement of battery technologies remain central to this transition. The journey so far has been marked by significant achievements, and the path ahead is ripe with opportunities for further advancements that will continue to reshape the landscape of automotive transportation.
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