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ВЕСТН. МОСК. УН-ТА. СЕР. 13. ВОСТОКОВЕДЕНИЕ. 2016. № 1
Mher Sahakyan
CHINA'S REFORMS TO IMPROVE ITS
PEACEKEEPING CAPABILITIES:
CHINA'S GROWING ROLE IN UNPKO (2000-2013)
This paper focuses on China's policy on peacekeeping from 2000 to 2013. To improve its peacekeeping capabilities, China implemented several reforms and structural changes. China's involvement in UN peacekeeping operations (UNPKO) provides China an opportunity to solidify its reputation in the world as a responsible power and strengthen its position in countries that are at risk. The international community is also interested in China deepening its role and sending more troops to UN peacekeeping operations because China offers both quality and quantity.
Key words: China, Peacekeeping Operations, UNSC, Africa, UN Peacekeeping Operations.
Мгер Саакян
РЕФОРМЫ КИТАЯ, НАПРАВЛЕННЫЕ
НА УЛУЧШЕНИЕ СВОЕГО МИРОТВОРЧЕСКОГО
ПОТЕНЦИАЛА: ВОЗРАСТАЮЩАЯ РОЛЬ КИТАЯ
В MO ООН (2000-2013)
Статья посвящена возрастанию роли Китая в миротворческих операциях ООН (2000-2013). Для улучшения миротворческого потенциала Китай осуществил ряд реформ и структурных изменений. Участие Китая в миротворческих операциях ООН предоставляет Китаю возможность укрепить свою репутацию в мире, как ответственной державе и укрепить свои позиции в странах, где происходят миротворческие операции. Международное сообщество также заинтересовано в том, чтобы Пекин продолжал играть активную роль в миротворческих операциях, так как Китай предоставляет и количество, и качество.
Ключевые слова: Китай, СБ ООН, миротворческие операции, Африка, департамент миротворческих операций ООН.
China and Peacekeeping. Its rising economic strength and productive way of governance provide China with a historic opportunity to become one of the main players in modern international relations. As a permanent member of the UNSC and an important player in international relations,
China has the capability and authority to address and solve internationally important problems. In turn, international society is also interested in Beijing continuing its active involvement in the improvements in world security. For instance, Kofi Annan visited China in January 2001 and told Chinese Foreign Minister Tang Jiaxuan, "China is an important member of the UN, and it has an important impact on peacekeeping operations. The developing and changing international situation called for the UN to revitalize its peacekeeping operations, and we hope China will make a greater contribution."1
China's involvement in UNPKO provides China an opportunity to solidify its reputation in the world as a responsible power and strengthen its position in countries that are at risk.
It is notable that China has achieved good relations with several states located in Africa and Middle East compared to Western countries having tense relations. Good relations with so-called rogue states give Beijing opportunities to mediate relations between conflicting parties and help UNSC to get permission from the governments of these countries to allow peacekeepers to their territory. For instance, UN was able to obtain permission from Sudan to send peacekeeping forces into Darfur and end genocidal activities with China's assistance.
The peacekeeping operations map shows that China was mostly involved in operations in Africa. Up to the end of the Cold War, China had not attained an economic and political influence in African and Middle Eastern countries, whereas after the Cold War, the situation changed, as China made huge investments in these areas. As in mid-2012, China's Ambassador to South Africa, Tian Xuejun, in a wide ranging speech on China-Africa relations, said, "China's investment in Africa of various kinds exceeds $40 billion, among which $14.7 billion is direct investment."2 China's economy continues to grow, and this process is made possible with the help of secure and accessible energy resources from reliable partners. Until 2013, China was buying most of its energy resources from the Middle East and Africa, which is the main reason why China participated primarily in ongoing peacekeeping operations in these areas. Indeed, China wants to maintain stability in these areas to obtain energy resources without problems.
Moreover, peacekeeping operations and peacebuilding can be helpful for the Chinese "New Silk Road Economic Belt" as this program may
1 Masayuki Masuda, "China's Peacekeeping Diplomacy and Troop Dispatch: A New Avenue for Engagement with the International Community," NIDS Journal of Defense and Security, The National Institute for Defense Studies, Japan, 20 December 2011, p. 14.
2 "China's investment in Africa, China US focus", China and US Focus Digest, 1 November 2012. URL: http://www.chinausfocus.com/finance-economy/chinas-investments-in-africa/ (accessed on 12.02.2015).
be possible in areas that are stable and safe for Chinese investments. If the Chinese "New Silk Road Economic Belt." program is successful, it can make great contributions to the development of the countries located from the Far East to Europe and from the Far East to the Middle East and Africa. New workplaces and economic prosperity would make the world more secure and stable. It is also worth mentioning that Beijing's involvement in UN peacekeeping operations enhances China's reputation as a responsible power.
PLA's Reforms on Improving Peacekeeping Structure. After the 2000s, China can be considered one of the main contributors to the UNPKO and continues to improve the knowledge of its personnel that are recruited for peacekeeping operations. To improve its peacekeeping capabilities, China implemented several reforms and structural changes. The following section will discuss those reforms that aimed to improve its peacekeepers qualifications.
In August 1998, the Central Party School issued "Suggestions on the Selection of Civilian Police to Participate in UNPKO," formally initiating training for civilian police in peacekeeping operations. Peacekeeping personnel training facilities for civilian police have since been established in Langfang, Hebei province, and Nanjing. The Civilian Peacekeeping Police Training Centre in Langfang is the largest peacekeeping personnel training center in Asia. China states that it is committed to sending "the best of the best" as peacekeepers.3 In December 2001, the Peacekeeping Affairs Office was established in the MND. Its duty is to implement unified coordination and management within the army regarding troop dispatch to UN peacekeeping missions. In January 2002, Chinese government officially decided to join the UN Stand-by Arrangement System (UNSAS) and registered the number of personnel that can be provided, including troops to the UN Secretariat. China registered one engineering battalion (525 personnel), one standard medical team (35 personnel), and two transport companies (80 personnel each), which were all non-combat units.4
By the end of 2003, the State Council and the Central Military Commission (CMC) ratified the establishment of the Peacekeeping Center of Chinese MND, a military institution that provides training for stand-by forces for UN peacekeeping missions.5
The CMC, China's top military organ, is comprised of four main departments: the general staff department, the general logistics department, the general armaments department and the general political department,
3 International Crisis Group, China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping, Asia Report N 166, Beijing/New York/Brussels, 17 April 2009. p. 29.
4 Masayuki Masuda, "China's Peacekeeping Diplomacy and Troop Dispatch: A New Avenue for Engagement with the International Community," art. cit., p. 12.
5 Ibid.
and oversees the seven military regions under the People's Liberation Army (PLA) (Shenyang, Beijing, Lanzhou, Jinan, Nanjing, Guangzhou and Chengdu). It decides which military region will be assigned to a given peacekeeping mission. The Ministry of Public Security, in consultation with the CMC, will select the police force to join peacekeeping missions already approved by both the State Council and CMC. Once such decisions are made, the Chinese permanent mission in New York (particularly its military staff) negotiates the logistical and operational details of China's participation with DPKO.6
There are two separate tracks for the selection and training of Chinese military personnel and staff officers for peacekeeping operations. The first track is for military observers and UN staff officers. The basic selection requirements include a high level of competence and professional responsibility, proficiency in English, and at least five years of active service in the PLA. Prospective military observers and staff officers undergo a three-month training course organized by the PLA. The course covers the following areas: (a) general knowledge, literature and background on UN peacekeeping; (b) English language proficiency; (c) driving in difficult terrains; and (d) diplomatic and negotiation skills. The second track is for peacekeeping troops. The PLA creates a formed unit for each UN mission. Each unit is deployed overseas for eight months. Each unit is trained in its region for up to three months, with a focus on (a) the UN Charter and DPKO protocols and disciplinary regulations; (b) the laws of the intended host country; (c) international humanitarian law; (d) physical training; (e) English language proficiency; and (f) simulation exercises7. The country's growing commitment to peacekeeping under UN auspices was further exemplified by the opening of the China Peacekeeping CIVPOL (Civilian Police) Training Centre in Lanfang City, south of the capital, in August 2000, followed by that of the MND Peacekeeping Center in Beijing's Huairov District in June 2009. Both training centers have been visited and used not only by Chinese peacekeepers, but also by overseas peacekeeping personnel.8
On 2008 at the Opening Ceremony of the Boao Forum for Asia Annual Conference China's President Hu Jintao mentioned, "China is now a key participant in the international system. Over the past years, China has sent over 10,000 peacekeepers to 22 UN peacekeeping operations. Over 1,900 Chinese peacekeepers are now on active duty, making China the
6 International Crisis Group, China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping, op. cit.,
p. 26.
7 Bates Gill and Chin-Hao Huang, China's Expanding Role in Peacekeeping, Prospects and Policy Implications, SIPRI, Policy Paper 25. November 2009, p. 9.
8 Miwa Hirono and Marc Lanteigne, "Introduction: China and UN Peacekeeping," International Peacekeeping, Vol. 18. Issue 3. 15 Jun 2011, p. 246.
largest troop-contributing country among the five permanent members of the UNSC."9
In May 2009, the PLA General Staff Department announced that it had established an 'arms force system' for Military operations other than war (MOOTW). Five specialized forces were created under this system: a flood and disaster relief force; a post-earthquake emergency rescue force; an emergency rescue force for nuclear, chemical and biological disasters; an emergency relief force for transport facilities; and an international peacekeeping force. According to the Chinese Ministry of Defense, it will comprise engineering, transport and medical personnel and will contribute to UN peacekeeping operations.10
Major General Zhu Chenghu, Dean of the School of Defense, PLA National Defense University, stressed, "The Chinese government and the Chinese army are getting more clear recognition of their responsibility for international and regional peacekeeping". He remarked that the dispatch of troops not only provided "an opportunity for the Chinese army to see the world" but also "an opportunity for the World to understand the Chinese army."11
China's Joint Conferences, Training and Seminars with Other Peacekeeping States. In November 2004, the Peacekeeping Affairs Office and the China Institute for International Strategic Studies jointly hosted an international seminar on "Challenges of Peace Operations into the 21st Century" in Beijing, which was attended by about 40 representatives from 10 countries.12
Further, in 2007 the Office of Peacekeeping Affairs sponsored the first China-Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) peacekeeping seminar in Beijing. At this event, representatives of the ASEAN member states and China exchanged ideas and experiences on UN peacekeeping and explored ways to strengthen cooperation.13
Three seminars related to international peacekeeping operations were held between China and the UK by the end of2008, and the peacekeeping and reconstruction roles of the UN were discussed.14
9 Hu Jintao, "Continuing Reform and Opening-up and Advancing Win-Win Cooperation," 12 April 2008. URL: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-04/12/ content_7966431.htm (accessed on 06.02.2015).
10 Bates Gill and Chin-Hao Huang, China's Expanding Role in Peacekeeping, Prospects and Policy Implications, op. cit., p. 15.
11 Masayuki Masuda, "China's Peacekeeping Diplomacy and Troop Dispatch: A New Avenue for Engagement with the International Community," art. cit., p. 16.
12 Ibid. P. 18.
13 Bates Gill and Chin-Hao Huang. China's Expanding Role in Peacekeeping, Prospects and Policy Implications, op. cit., p. 17.
14 Masayuki Masuda, "China's Peacekeeping Diplomacy and Troop Dispatch: A New Avenue for Engagement with the International Community," art. cit., p.18.
In November 2009, the MND held an international peacekeeping conference in Beijing, and demonstrated China's willingness to contribute more to UN peacekeeping.15
PLA officers have been sent to take part in professional training and exchanges on peacekeeping operations in countries including Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Mongolia, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland and Thailand. Chinese officers have also participated, either as observers or as active participants, in peacekeeping training exercises organized under the French Reinforcement of African Peacekeeping Capabilities (RECAMP) initiative as well as those sponsored by the British defence and security establishments.16
On July 2009, China's peacekeepers attended in joint exercise with Mongolian troops coded "Peacekeeping Mission-2009." It marks the first joint military training between China and Mongolia. The exercise was set to boost the capacity of both military forces in carrying out peacekeeping missions, according to the sources. During the stage of comprehensive simulation drills, the military forces were expected to complete transport and defensive missions against the backdrop of a simulated UN peacekeeping mission.17 On 2011, a training session for peacekeeping officials, jointly held by China's MND and the UN DPKO, was completed on Friday in Beijing. A total of 33 peacekeeping officers from 14 countries, including China, Russia and Canada, attended the 12-day session, the first of its kind to be held in China.18
China's government took several important steps to enhance the educational level of the new selected peacekeepers to improve their knowledge of English.
Consequently, in 2008 the Defense Ministry issued directives shifting the focus to college students and graduates. These new recruitment standards should expand the pool of potential peacekeepers by increasing the proportion of military personnel with prior English language skills. Another important measure is to provide English training for existing personnel. For several years, the PLA has been in discussions with the UK regarding assistance in English training for peacekeepers. PLA rep-
15 Miwa Hirono and Marc Lanteigne, "Introduction: China and UN Peacekeeping," art. cit., p. 246.
16 Bates Gill and Chin-Hao Huang, China's Expanding Role in Peacekeeping, Prospects and Policy Implications, op. cit., p. 17.
17 "China, Mongolia Launch Joint Peacekeeping Exercise", Xinhua, 28 June 2009. URL: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/28/content_11615899.htm (accessed on 25.07.2015).
18 "First Training Session for UN Peacekeeping Officials Concludes in Beijing," Xinhua, 1 April 2011. URL: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-04-/01/c_13809589.htm (accessed on 25.07.2015).
resentatives have been sent abroad to attend English training courses in Estonia, with the aim that these individuals would return to China and build a self-sustaining curriculum in English training.19
In sum, within a short period of time, China succeeded in establishing its schools and structures to prepare well-qualified peacekeepers. China was successful in creating friendly ties with other countries that are involved in peacekeeping operations and in organizing joint landmark conferences, trainings and seminars, in addition to sharing its experiences with them. China's peacekeeping facilities are open to training peacekeepers from China and other countries. China also found solutions to improve its peacekeepers' knowledge of English, which provided an added impetus for international cooperation.
China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping Operations. From 2009 to 2013, China continued to increase its role in peacekeeping operations. This period of time can be called China's active involvement with non-combat troops.
According to Courtney J. Richardson, "China is very specific in its peacekeeping deployments: dispatching individual liaison officers; and formed police unites, and 'enabler units', which provide logistics, engineering and medical specialties that are the backbone to a peacekeeping mission, 'enabling' the complete execution of the mandate. Enabler units are typically more challenging for the UN to source, since many top TCCs are developing states that do not have these high-value capabilities. Given China's focus on more 'blue-beret' activities such as constructing roads and drilling waterholes."20
For instance, Chinese peacekeepers claim to have built more than 7300 kilometers of paved roads and 200 bridges, treated more than 28 000 patients, and cleared more than 7500 explosive devices.21
By August 2011, 1,925 Chinese peacekeepers had been on duty at 12 missions, making China the 15th largest troop-contributing country in the world and the largest troop contributing country among the five permanent members of the Security Council.22 In 2000s, Chinese con-
19 International Crisis Group, China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping, op. cit.,
p. 31.
20 Lïkangyûn: "Dui zhöngguo zuowéi bïnli pàiqian guo duibï yànjiû", zài zhöngguo canyù liànhéguo wéichi héping xingdong de qiànyàn wènti, zhàoléi (zuozhé), gao xïn man (zuozhé), déng (zuozhé), shishi chübän shè; di 1 bän, 2011/10/1), di. 471-472 Yè (Courtney J. Richardson, "The Comparative Case of the People's Republic of China as a Troop Contributing Country" In Zhaolei, Gao Xinman, The Cutting-edge Issues of China's Participation in UN Peacekeeping Operations, 1 October 2011, p. 471-472).
21 Bates Gill and Chin-Hao Huang, China's Expanding Role in Peacekeeping, Prospects and Policy Implications, op. cit., p. 5.
22 Position Paper of the People's Republic of China, the 66th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, 13 September 2011. URL: http://gd.china-embassy.org/eng/ zyxw/t858193.htm (accessed 08.02.2015).
tributions to UN peacekeeping hovered at 100 personnel a year; by 2010, Chinese contributions to UN peacekeeping had reached a high of just over 2,200 personnel.23
It is worth mentioning that Chinese peacekeepers' performance in the field has received generally positive, if mixed reviews. According to accounts of those who served alongside Chinese police, they are highly professional, well trained and able to work effectively in difficult operational environments. Chinese medical teams and equipment are state of the art, with separate facilities for contemporary and Chinese traditional medicine.24
In total, the PLA has dispatched 22,000 military personnel for 23 UN peacekeeping missions. All of them have been awarded the UN peace medals. Three officers and six soldiers have laid down their lives performing such duties and were posthumously awarded the Dag Hammarskjold medal. So far, China is the biggest troop and police contributor among the five permanent members of the UNSC. It also dispatches the most numbers of troops for engineering, transportation and medical support among all the 115 contributing countries. China pays and contributes the largest share of UN peacekeeping costs among all developing countries.25
In December 2013, China was the 13th largest contributor of troops (2078 peacekeepers) to UN peacekeeping operations.
Miwa Hirono and Marc Lanteigne mentioned, "China has a particular advantage as a peacekeeping nation because it is not perceived by those in the areas of operations as having an 'imperialist' or 'neo-colonialist' past, placing China in a similar position as middle-power contributors to past UN missions such as Australia, Canada and Egypt, themselves former colonies. This advantage is prominent given that the US, the UK and France were often regarded as imperialist powers. In regions with a colonial past, intervention by actors that do not carry the image of a colonial power is often perceived from local perspectives to carry greater legitimacy."26
Russian scholar Andrei Kortunov believes that Russia supports the idea that the UN must be the main actor on peacekeeping operations, and Russia welcomes those UN members that want to be involved in the UNPKO. China is increasing its military strength, and neighboring
23 p. 474.
24 International Crisis Group, China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping, op. cit.,
p. 7.
25 Ministry of National Defense the People's Republic of China, "Safeguarding World Peace and Regional Stability, White Papers. URL: http://eng.mod.gov.cn/Database/ WhitePapers/2013-04/19/content_4443470.htm (accessed on 29.01.2015).
26 Miwa Hirono and Marc Lanteigne, "Introduction: China and UN Peacekeeping," art. cit., p. 252
countries are concerned. In general, Russia is glad that China participates in UNPKO, but its involvement in such peacekeeping must have limits because in many countries in which it has its own interests, China cannot be impartial.27
According to Andrei Baklitskiy, "Russia is less interested in the developments which are going on in the South from the Central Africa, thus for Russia it is not a problem, that China increases its influence by making vast investments or sending peacekeepers in the above mentioned territories. Russia will only be concerned with involvement of the Chinese peacekeepers in the South Caucasus or in the Central Asia."28
Conclusion and Recommendations. As an active participant in peacekeeping operations, China plays an important role in maintaining peace worldwide. Peacekeeping operations provide Chinese and foreign troops opportunities to cooperate and share experiences. This cooperation will provide an added impetus to the international community to improve its mechanism for preventing genocide, ethnic cleansing and aggression and will create opportunities for the international community to improve and strengthen its methods of cooperation in joint operations intended to prevent wars and/or natural disasters. China was actively involved in peacekeeping operations but was participating without combat troops. China endorsed the "Brahimi Report"29 and began to support its implementation. China also voted for several resolutions (1265, 1295, 1674, 1820, 1894) aiming to take more reliable action to protect civilian populations during military conflicts. Beginning in 2008, Beijing was involved in the struggle against piracy. As a responsible power, China's naval force defended not only its own vessels but also foreign vessels. China's peacekeepers were involved in peacekeeping operations in Africa, Eastern Europe, Southeast Asia, Middle East and North America.
As China strengthens its position as a great power and Chinese companies increase their investments in countries that are located in the so-called "Silk Road Economic Belt," Beijing will increase its role in peacekeeping operations to make this territory safe and stable. The stability of the main communication roads from the Far East to the Middle East, Africa and Europe will give the Chinese government the opportunity to attempt to actualize Xi Jinping's "Silk Road Economic Belt" project. The
27 Interview with Andrei Kortunov, Director General of the Russian International Affairs Council, Moscow, Russia, 15 April 2015.
28 Interview with Andrey Baklitskiy, Russia and Nuclear Nonproliferation Program Director, PIR Center, Abramcevo, Russia, 5 September 2015.
29 The Panel noted (Brahimi report) that in order to be effective, UN peacekeeping operations must be properly resourced and equipped, and operate under clear, credible and achievable mandates. UN, "Reform of Peacekeeping." URL: http://www.un.org/en/ peacekeeping/operations/reform.shtml (accessed on 15.02.2015).
main argument of the above mentioned hypotheses is that China sent its first infantry battalion for UN peacekeeping to the South Sudan for the first time in 2014, which means that China revised its traditional position, choosing to participate in the enforcement of peace.
In turn, the international community is also interested in China deepening its role and sending more troops to UN peacekeeping operations because China offers both quality and quantity. UN officials have praised Chinese peacekeepers for their professional work during peacekeeping operations.
For instance, on June 19, 2013 In Beijing UNSC Secretary-general Ban Ki-moon made several remarks on China's involvement on peacekeeping operations, "I have seen the bravery of Chinese blue helmets helping struggling communities around the world. China provides more peacekeepers to the UN than all of the four other permanent members combined. I applaud this solidarity."30
The cooperation between China and other countries that are involved in peacekeeping improves the level of the world security. China also opened several training facilities to improve the skills of Chinese peacekeepers. At these centers, China hosts and trains foreign peacekeepers.
In sum, from 2000-2013, China increased its involvement in peacekeeping and served as an active participant in ongoing operations. China's policy on peacekeeping helped to sustain peace in different countries and maintain world peace and stability. China is an active participant in peacekeeping operations and thus plays an important role in maintaining peace. China's policy on peacekeeping has helped to sustain peace in different countries and to maintain world peace and stability.
Recommendations to the UN
China's expanding engagement in UN peacekeeping provides good opportunities for the UN to solve the problem of shortages in the contributions of troops, which appeared when Western countries reduced their involvement in peacekeeping. The relevant UN agencies and officials could consider the following measures:
1. Encourage China to send more military units.
2. Encourage those countries with ethnic conflicts to use the Chinese experience to solve problems between different ethnic groups, as 56 nationalities live in harmony in China.
3. Support China to realize its "New Silk Road Economic Belt" program because it can help countries from the Far East to the Middle East and Europe develop their economies and become more secure.
30 Ban Ki-moon, "Remarks at the China Peacekeeping Military Training Center," Beijing, China, 19 June 2013. URL: http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocus/sgspeeches/ statments_full.asp?statID=1900#.VMopH59Ay_U (accessed on 29.01. 2015).
4. Support Chinese universities in teaching Chinese worldwide, which will prepare Chinese language specialists to serve as a language bridge between Chinese peacekeepers and locals. Recommendations to China
1. As Western powers reduce the number of their troops engaged in peacekeeping, China can take the initiative and fill this vacuum with its well-trained forces. This step will help maintain stability in African and Middle Eastern countries in which China has economic interests.
2. Send more military troops for peacekeeping operations. As a result, Chinese forces will gain experience and maintain tactical efficiency.
3. Continue to train peacekeepers from third world countries and teach them Chinese. This step will help increase the skills of foreign peacekeepers and provide opportunities to establish cooperation between Chinese and foreign peacekeepers.
4. Offer creative and practical suggestions to the international community with the aim of beginning peacekeeping operations in Syria and Iraq. Help the above-mentioned countries defeat the so-called Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and help them to restore their territorial integrity. The unstable situation in Syria and Iraq is dangerous and can harm the security of the Middle East and the Persian Gulf, which are primary energy sources for China.
5. Actively participate in negotiations on peacebuilding in the South Caucasus because it is located in the center of important communication roads.
References
Ban Ki-moon. "Remarks at the China Peacekeeping Military Training Centre," Beijing, 2013. 19 June.
URL: http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocus/sgspeeches/statments_full.asp?statID=1900#.
VMopH59Ay_U (accessed on 29.01.2015). China's Investment in Africa, China US focus // China and US Focus Digest. 2012. 1 Nov. URL: http://www.chinausfocus.com/finance-economy/chinas-investments-in-africa/ (accessed on 12.02.2015). China, Mongolia Launch Joint Peacekeeping Exercise // Xinhua. 2009. 28 June. URL: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-06/28/content_11615899.htm (accessed on 25.07.2015).
First Training Session for UN Peacekeeping Officials Concludes in Beijing // Xinhua. 2011. 1 Apr. URL: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-04/01/c_13809589. htm (accessed on 25.07. 2015). Gill, Bates and Huang, Chin-Hao // China's Expanding Role in Peacekeeping, Prospects
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Peacekeeping. Vol. 18. Issue 3. 2011. 15 Jun. P. 243-256. International Crisis Group, China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping, Asia Report No. 166, Beijing/New York/Brussels, 17 April 2009.
Interviews by the Author
1. Interview with Andrei Kortunov, Director General of the Russian International Affairs Council, Moscow, Russia, 15 April 2015.
2. Interview with Andrey Baklitskiy, Russia and Nuclear Nonproliferation Program Director, PIR Center, Abramcevo, Russia, 5 September 2015.
3. Jintao Hu. "Continuing Reform and Opening-up and Advancing Win-Win Cooperation," Xinhua. URL: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-04/12/content_7966431. htm (accessed on 06.02.2015).
4. Likangyun: "Dui zhongguo zuowei blnli paiqian guo duibi yanjiu ", zai zhongguo canyu lianheguo weichi heping xingdong de qianyan wenti, zhaolei (zuozhe), gao xln man (zuozhe), deng (zuozhe), shishi chuban she; di 1 ban, 2011/10/1), 581 Ye. (Courtney J. Richardson "The comparative case of the People's republic of China as a troop contributing country", In The Cutting-edge Issues of China's Participation in UN Peacekeeping Operations, edited by Zhaolei, Gao Xinman. 1 Oct. 2011. P. 467-487).
Masuda Masayuki. China's Peacekeeping Diplomacy and Troop Dispatch: A New Avenue for Engagement with the International Community. URL http://gd.china-embassy.org/ eng/zyxw/1858193.htm (accessed on 08.02.2015). Safeguarding World Peace and Regional Stability. "White Papers", Ministry of National Defense the People's Republic of China. URL: http://eng.mod.gov.cn/Database/ WhitePapers/2013-04/19/content_4443470.htm (accessed on 29.01.2015). UN, "Reform of Peacekeeping". URL: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/
reform.shtml (accessed on 15.02. 2015). Weiss Th.G. and Daws Sam (eds.). The Oxford Handbook on The United Nations, Oxford University Press, 2008. P. 810.
Сведения об авторе: Саакян Мгер, аспирант кафедры истории Института Международных отношений, Нанкинский Университет, Китай. E-mail: [email protected]
About the author: Sahakyan Mher, PhD Student, The Institute of International Relations, Department of History, Nanjing University, China. E-mail: [email protected]
